Liberal Learning - 09/15
Descriptive vs prescriptive grammar
Descriptive grammar: doesn’t involve rules, but clarifies that the rules of descriptive grammar are those generally used by fluent speakers.
Prescriptive grammar: aims to enforce rules to shape how people speak/write, even if they are fluent.
Academic vs workplace register:
Academic writing requires a formal register; many people are fluent speakers but not used to an academically formal register.
Workplace usage often mirrors the academic register in larger organizations; the ability to adapt to formal writing is a practical skill for professional success.
Quotation marks and register:
In standard/academic writing, quotation marks are used to quote the exact words of a specified source or speaker.
In informal writing (e.g., social media, blogs, pamphlets), quotation marks are sometimes used for emphasis or to distance the claim from the writer; this is often referred to as using commonplaces or scare quotes.
Commonplaces: statements that many people say but which are not attribution-verified; they may be placed in quotes to signal that they are not the author’s own view.
Scare quotes: quotation marks used to cast doubt on or distance oneself from a term (e.g., labeling someone as a “communist” with quotation marks to imply the speaker’s doubt about the label).
Formal writing generally avoids common-place/explicit scare quotes; it instead attributes claims directly and uses indirect speech when appropriate.
Informal vs formal quotation use in signs and everyday text:
Informal signs (e.g., advertisements in a gas station) may use quotation marks to distance or emphasize not as direct quotations; this can seem odd to non-native readers.
In formal academic writing, quotation marks are reserved strictly for quotations with attribution; paraphrase is preferred without quotation marks.
Indirect speech (paraphrase) vs direct quotation:
If you refer to someone else’s idea without quoting, you use indirect speech and typically do not use quotation marks.
The role of quotation marks in signaling stance:
Quotation marks can signal distance, hedging, or doubt about a claim; in formal contexts, this signaling is minimized or avoided.
Practical notes on-purpose of quotes:
Quotation marks are useful to show fidelity to another speaker/source; misuse (overuse or improper attribution) can undermine clarity.
Being fluent does not guarantee correct use of formal quotation conventions; academic success requires understanding the appropriate register.
Key distinction to remember:
Quotation marks: use for exact quotes with attribution; use indirect speech for general statements not attributed to a source; avoid quotes for quiz responses unless directly quoting a source in the context of the assignment.
Some common metalinguistic observations:
Fluency in speech can outpace formal writing ability; many fluent writers still need to learn formal academic conventions.
There is a distinction between “register” (level of formality) and “tone” (attitude toward the reader or subject), both of which are central to academic work.
Grammar concepts and how they are used in analysis (with examples from the lecture)
Verbs: core elements of clauses; different features to consider:
Tense: time reference of the action.
Voice: Active vs Passive (e.g., "I threw the ball" vs "The ball was thrown by me").
Aspect: distinguishes the temporal flow of an action; main types include:
Completed (perfect) aspect: indicates completion of an action (e.g., "I had class").
Progressive aspect: indicates ongoing action (e.g., "I am walking").
Simple aspect: basic, habitual or general statement (e.g., "I walk").
Person and number: first/second/third person; singular vs plural; e.g., verbs often reflect subject person/number (e.g., "I walk" vs "They walk").
Mood: indicative (normal factual statements), subjunctive (hypothetical or non-factual situations).
Subjunctive mood and historical usage:
Subjunctive expresses non-factual, hypothetical, or desirable states (e.g., "If I were to go to the movies…", "If he were to go…").
Historically, English used should for many subjunctive meanings, but since about the mid-20th century (post-WWII), the use of should for these senses has declined and other forms (like would, could) are used instead.
Evidence of the shift: the use of were as the past subjunctive remains for hypothetical situations (e.g., "If I were…"), including in third person (
"If he were to go…").In informal speech, the form "If I was" is common but increasingly considered nonstandard or informal; the plural form of were appears to mark a hypothetical or non-factual stance.
Modal mood:
Modals (e.g., can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must) are not standalone verbs; they modify the main verb to express modality (necessity, possibility, permission, obligation).
The speaker notes that a modal like can cannot stand alone as a finite verb; it must accompany a main verb (e.g., "I can't remember…" where "can't" is a modal, and the main verb is "remember").
The role of the relative or complementizer word "what" in clauses:
In the example "I can't remember what Max said Liz bought".
The word "what" functions as a relative/complementizer that links the main clause to the subordinate clause.
Within the subordinate clause, the structure is: subject = Max, verb = said, object = what.
Parsed as: main clause – I (subject) remember (verb) [object = what Max said], where the object (what) is the thing Max said.
The string "what Max said" can be analyzed as a nested structure where:
The word "what" serves as the object of the verb in the subordinate clause ("Max said what").
The subordinate clause provides the content of the memory; the subject of the subordinate clause is Max.
A quick grammar check question raised in the lecture: which word is the object of the first verb (remember), and which word is the subject of the second clause (said)? The answer: the object of "remember" is the clause "what Max said"; within that clause, the subject is "Max" and the verb is "said".
Important terms and definitions from the lecture:
Inductive mood: standard declarative mood (indicative) for stating facts.
Subjunctive: hypothetical, contrary-to-fact, or desirable states (e.g., "If I were…", "I would go").
Indicative: the default mood for statements of fact (e.g., "I walk").
Aspect: the temporal structure of a verb phrase (completed, progressive, simple).
Voice: active vs passive; who is doing the action vs who is receiving it.
Tense: time reference of the action (past, present, future).
Person and Number: speaker perspective (first/second/third person) and singular/plural.
Practical implications for writing and exams:
When paraphrasing or quoting in essays, use indirect speech to convey ideas without quoting; reserve quotation marks for exact quotes.
If you include a direct quote, provide attribution; avoid over-quoting in quizzes where the emphasis is on understanding rather than memorization of exact phrasing.
Be mindful of register: in formal academic work, avoid informal constructions and scare quotes; use a direct but precise style.
For non-native writers, expect to spend extra time practicing writing and getting feedback from peers, tutors, and office hours to improve fluency in academic English.
Quick practice prompts inspired by the lecture:
Parse the sentence: "I can't remember what Max said." Identify the roles of each word in the main clause and the subordinate clause.
Convert the hypothetical sentence into its more formal subjunctive form: e.g., "If I were to go to the movies, I would spend a lot of money on popcorn" vs informal "If I was to go…". Note the shift in formality and the ongoing use of the subjunctive in modern English.
Identify whether a given sentence uses indicative, subjunctive, or conditional mood and describe why.
Connections to broader courses and real-world relevance
Reading and problem-solving in logic and argumentation: the new structure of lectures and problem sets emphasizes active engagement with material and collaborative problem-solving, mirroring professional/academic practices.
Language accuracy and professional success: the emphasis on register, fluency, and precise use of quotation marks connects to real-world writing in academia and corporate environments where clear communication matters.
Correction and feedback loops: the recommended process to improve fluency (peer review, tutoring center, office hours) aligns with professional development in writing and editing tasks common in many careers.
Ethical and practical implications: being mindful of attribution and quotation reduces plagiarism risk and maintains intellectual honesty; understanding different language registers respects diverse student backgrounds and supports inclusive pedagogy.