US History Notes: Period 2

• Prelude to Unraveling Relations

-Tensions between Britain and American colonies increased post-1763

-Proclamation of 1763: Banned white settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, causing unrest among colonists.

• George Grenville and Financial Challenges

-George Grenville: Appointed as First Lord of the Treasury, faced the challenge of war debts from the Seven Years’ War.

-Aimed to raise revenue through new tax proposals, foreseeing the reliance solely on British taxpayers was insufficient.

• Sugar Act of 1764

-Purpose: Lowered the tax on molasses from 6d to 3d per gallon to curb smuggling and bribery among customs officials.

-Implementation: Ship captains are required to maintain detailed cargo lists, enforced through admiralty courts(no jury trials).

-Impact on Colonists: Discontent due to perceived loss of rights, particularly the right to trial by jury.

• Quartering Act of 1765

-Requirement: Colonies had to accommodate British troops stationed within their borders.

-Colonial Response: Frustrations over troop presence in peacetime and the financial burden on the colonies

• The Stamp Act of 1765

-Imposed a direct tax on a wide range of printed materials(newspapers, legal documents, dice, etc)

-Significance: Required a stamp to prove tax payment, leading to severe colonial resistance.

-Colonial Grievances: Denial of the right to trial by jury reinforced anger, fueled cries of “NO TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION” 

• Growing Colonial Unity and Resistance

-Massachusetts Leadership: Patrick Henry introduced resolutions against the Stamp Act, galvanizing colonial opposition.

-Stamp Act Congress: Convened in New York in 1765 with delegates from nine colonies to discuss resistance and grievances.

-Sons of Liberty: Grassroots organization of citizens, staging protests, attacking stamp offices, and expressing dissent against British policies. 

• Charles Townsend and Rising Tensions

-Charles Townsend’s Policies(1767): Became Prime Minister wanting to introduce new taxes without addressing colonial concerns.

-Revenue Act: Imposed tariffs on imports like glass, paper, paint, and tea, amplifying colonial resistance. 

• John Dickinson and Samuel Adams

-John Dickinson: Wrote “A Letter from a Farmer in Pennsylvania,” urging boycotts of British goods and self-sufficiency.

-Samuel Adams: A prominent political organizer who encouraged coordinated resistance and local boycotts.

• Repeal and Continued Tensions

-Withdrawal of Some Taxes: Due to protests and boycotts, most Townsend duties were eventually repealed but left the tea tax in place.

-Committees of Correspondence: Established for communication between colonies to unify and promote resistance.

• The Boston Tea Party and its Aftermath 

-Tea Act of 1773: Granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in America, agitating colonial economic interests

-Boston Tea Party (1773): Protest led by disguised colonists, dumping 90,000 pounds of tea into the harbor, escalating tensions with Britain.

-Coercive Acts (1774): Resulted in punitive measures against Massachusetts, including port closures and restrictions on local governance. 

• First Continental Congress (1774)

-Meeting in Philadelphia: Delegates from 12 colonies convened to outline rights and grievances, establishing the foundation for unified colonial response.

-Declaration of Rights and Grievances: Asserted colonial rights to tax and legislate while acknowledging allegiance to the king.

• Escalation of Conflict

-General Thomas Gage: British commander dissolving the Massachusetts legislature, escalating tensions.

-Lexington and Concord (April 1775): First military conflict, resulting in colonial militia resistance and increased animosity toward British troops.

• Ongoing Engagement in War Preparations

-Siege of Boston: American forces began to lay siege to British troops in Boston, leading to confrontations such as Bunker Hill.

-Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense”: Pamphlet advocating for independence, significantly influencing public opinion and galvanizing support for revolution.

• Second Continental Congress (1775)

-Formation of Continental Army: Marked the first steps toward organized military resistance to British rule despite initial resistance to British rule despite initial reluctance for independence.

-Response to British Actions: increasing grassroots resistance and coordination among colonies, paving the way to significant conflict.  

• Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776)

-Written by Thomas Jefferson, inspired by Enlightenment ideas.

-Listed grievances against King George III

-Declared unalienable rights: Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness.

-Influenced by John Locke (natural rights: life, liberty, property).

• American Revolution (1775-1783)

-Patriots (Whigs) vs. Loyalists (Tories)

-Continental Army (led by George Washington) vs. British Army + Hessian Mercenaries

-Key Battles & Events:

-New York Campaign (1776): British General William Howe captured NYC; Washington’s army shrunk from 23,000 to 3,000.

-Trenton & Princeton (Dec 1776-Jan 1777): Washington crossed the Delaware River, surprised Hessians, and won key victories.

-Saratoga (Oct 1777): Turning point; British General Burgoyne surrendered, leading to French alliance.

• Southern Strategy (1778-1781):

-The British captured Savannah (1778) and Charleston (1780).

-General Cornwallis defeated at King’s Mountain & Cowpens (1780-81).

-Yorktown (Oct 1781): Battle of the Capes: French navy defeated British navy. 

-Washington & French forces (Lafayette, Rochambeau) laid siege; Cornwallis surrendered.

• End of the War & Aftermath 

-Treaty of Paris (1783): Negotiated by Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay.

-Britain recognized U.S. independence, granted land east of Mississippi.

-Spain regained Florida; Britain retained trade ties.

-Political & Economic Effects:

-France incurred heavy debt, leading to the French Revolution.

U.S. governed under the Articles of Confederation: Congress could declare war, make treaties, issue currency, but couldn’t tax or regulate trade.

-Spain blocked U.S. access to the Mississippi River (1784), causing tensions. 

-Native American conflicts continued, fueled by European Powers. 

• Western Land Disputes 

-Multiple states, particularly along the East Coast, claimed the same Western land.

-Notable examples include Virginia and New York claiming overlapping territories in the West.

-States aimed to sell off Western land to generate income, causing concern from smaller landless states.

-A national resolution was needed to manage land claims and sales.

• National Government Intervention

-The national government intervened to purchase land from the states

-Upon selling the land, profits were to be distributed among all states.

-Example: Georgia finally sold its claims in 1802.

• Northwest Ordinance

-Aimed to establish an orderly settlement of the West.

-Involved territories above the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River, collectively referred to as the Northwest.

-Significant legislation passed under the Articles of Confederation before the Constitution was written.

• Objectives of the Northwest Ordinance

-Set down a procedure for transforming lands into territories and eventual states.

-Congress would carve out a few territories, which would later become states:

-States Formed: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota.

-Governance structure established for appointed officials, including territorial governors.

-Legislature Formation: A legislature could be formed once a territory had 5,000 free adult men.

• Criteria for Statehood

-When the population of a territory reached 60,000, it could apply for statehood.

-Newly formed states would have equal standing with the original 13 states.

-The Ordinance guaranteed: 

  -Freedom of religion

-Right to a jury trial

-Support for public education 

-Outlawed slavery in the Northwest

• Need for a Stronger National Government

-The need for a stronger national government became apparent following several key events

• Jay-Gardoqui Treaty (1784)

-Spain’s actions cut off American access to the Mississippi River, vital for Western trade.

-John Jay was tasked with negotiating access but ended up signing a treaty that was widely opposed, leading to its failure.

• Shays’ Rebellion (1786)

-An armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers protesting economic injustices

-Demonstrated the weakness of the Articles of Confederation and the potential for widespread unrest.

• Constitutional Convention (1787)

-Convened in Philadelphia at the Independence Hall to address government weaknesses.

-Fifty-five delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island did not attend).

-George Washington: Presided over the convention; greatly respected.

-Ben Franklin: Important veteran statesman with much experience

-Alexander Hamilton: Advocated for a strong central government, and had earlier conflicts with fellow New Yorkers.

-James Madison: Known as the “Father of the Constitution,” introduced key proposals and kept detailed records.

• Proposals and Plans at the Convention

-Virginia Plan (Madison’s Proposal): Recommended a strong central government divided into three branches:

-Legislative (with veto power over state laws)

-Executive (elected by Congress)

-Judicial (independent)

-Legislative branch was to be bicameral with representation based on population

• New Jersey Plan

-Proposed by William Paterson, aimed to ensure equal representation for small states:

-Unicameral Congress with each state receiving one vote.

-Supported by small states but faced resistance from southern states concerned about political power balance.

• The Great Compromise 

-A resolution that established a bicameral legislature:

-Senate: Equal representation (two senators per state).

-House of Representatives: Representation based on population.

-Settled disputes between large and small states and north and south.

• Three-Fifths Compromise 

-A political arrangement for counting slaves in state populations.

-This resulted in each slave being counted as three-fifths of a person for representation purposes.

• The Electoral College

-A system established for electing the President, preventing direct popular votes.

-Each state receives a number of electoral votes based on their Congressional representation.

• Separation of Powers

-Government divided into three branches:

-Legislative: Makes laws and can impeach

-Executive: Enforces laws and conducts foreign relations

-Judicial: Interprets laws and adjudicates disputes

• Amendment Process

-Two methods to propose and ratify amendments: 

-Congress proposes an amendment, requiring a two-thirds majority and three-fourths approval from states. 

-State conventions, requiring the same approval criteria.

• Constitution Ratification

-Signed on September 17, 1787, by 39 delegates.

-Effective once ratified by nine states through individual ratifying conventions

-Federalists (supporters of the Constitution) vs. Anti-Federalists (opponents fearing too much central power).

• The Federalist Papers 

-A series of essays by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay advocating for the Constitution and explaining government structure and checks and balances.

-Promised introduction of a Bill of Rights after ratification. 

• Bills of Rights 

-The first ten amendments to the Constitution that enumerate individual rights and liberties )e.g., freedom of speech, assembly, and religion).

-Addressed concerns from Anti Federalists regarding potential government overreach and infringement on personal freedoms. 

• The Beginnings of the American Republic

-Overview of the early United States and its rapid population growth.

-Key dates - 1880: Foundation of the U.S. under the Constitution.

• Population Community 

-Population dynamics:

-The U.S. population doubled approximately every 22 years post- Revolution, starting with about 2 million Americans.

-Mainly rural lifestyle with 80%living outside large cities

-Barter system prevalent due to limited cash supply, where goods/services swapped instead of cash.

-Semi-subsistence farming common, with families producing most of their own necessities.

-Social cultural divide:

-Rural individuals often skeptical of the Constitution versus urban dwellers who tended to favor it

• Formation of the Government under the Constitution (1788)

-Introduction of initial government structure: 

-First elections held, establishing mechanisms for representation;

-Senators chosen by state legislatures; representatives directly elected.

-Temporary capital located in New York City, moved to Philadelphia for the first decade under the Constitution. 

-Early Congress sessions held at Independence Hall with representatives divided in debates over constitutional questions.

-Judiciary formation: 

-Congress established the courts system via the Judiciary Act of 1789 (size of the Supreme Court set at six),

-Specific functions outlined including types of original jurisdiction for the Supreme Court.

• Presidency of George Washington

-Washington: Founding leader, cautious about accepting power, but recognized significance of the role.

-Notable actions: created a cabinet including critical positions:

-Secretary of State: Thomas Jeffersonn (foreign relations).

-Treasury Secretary: Alexander Hamilton (financial systems).

-Established the precedent of the presidential title as “Mr.President.”

• Alexander Hamilton’s Financial Vision

-Hamilton’s emphasis on building a strong financial system

-Believed government should cater to wealthy interests and promote trade/manufacturing.

-Proposed plans to resolve significant debt issues ($52 million post- Revolution).

-Advocated for a national bank modeled after Britain’s, aiming to unify financial resources, which faced significant opposition from Jefferson and Madison (strict constructionists).

• Political Divisions and the Rise of Parties

Hamilton vs. Jefferson-Madison ideological conflict: 

-Hamilton’s vision was for a stronger central government, while Jefferson and Madison favored strict limits on government power.

-Debate over federalism versus agrarianism begins; Federalists advocate for urban trade, Republicans for rural agriculture.

• Key Events Leading to Political Parties:

-Jay’s Treaty (1794) with Britain: 

-Mixed outcomes and reinforced American economic dependence on Britain, causing discontent.

-Quasi-War with France (1797-1800):

-Adams’ neutrality stance amidst growing tensions, exemplified by the XYZ Affair. 

-Presidential election of 1796:

-First contested election resulting in divided leadership (Adamas as president, Jefferson as VP), highlighting the emergence of formal political parties

• Significant Policies and Conflicts

-Indian Affairs and Expansion:

-Policy toward tribes and land acquisition; resistance resulted in wars (e.g., Chickamauga Wars).

-Important military engagements and treaties (e.g., Treaty of Greenville).

-Whiskey Rebellion (1794):

-Farmers in Western Pennsylvania rise against the liquor tax leading to Washington’s enforcement of order with troops.