51d ago

biopsychology definitions

Adrenaline

The adrenal medulla is responsible for releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline, which play a key role in the fight or flight response. Adrenaline causes a number of physiological changes to prepare the body for fight or flight (e.g. increased heart rate, pupil dilation, etc.)

Auditory Area

The auditory area is responsible for analysing and processing acoustic information.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system plays an important role in homeostasis, which maintains in balance internal processes like body temperature, heart rate and blood pressure. The autonomic nervous system consists of motor pathways only, and has two components: 1) the sympathetic nervous system and 2) the parasympathetic nervous system.

Biological Rhythms

Biological rhythms are cyclical patterns within biological systems that have evolved in response to environmental influences, e.g. day and night. There are two key factors that govern biological rhythms: endogenous pacemakers (internal), the body's biological clocks, and exogenous zeitgebers (external), which are changes in the environment.

Broca's Area

The Broca's area is found in the left frontal lobe and is thought to be involved in language production.

Central Nervous System

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain provides conscious awareness and is involved in all psychological processes. The brain consists of many regions, which are responsible for different functions.

Circadian Rhythm

One biological rhythm is the 24-hour circadian rhythm (often known as the 'body clock'), which is reset by levels of light. The word circadian is from the Latin 'circa' which means about, and 'dia' which means day. Examples of circadian rhythms include the sleep-wave cycle and body temperature.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An electroencephalogram (EEG) works on the premise that information is processed in the brain as electrical activity in the form of action potentials or nerve impulses, transmitted along neurons. EEG scanners measure this electrical activity through electrodes attached to the scalp. Small electrical charges are detected by the electrodes, and are graphed over a period of time, indicating the level of activity in the brain.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system works alongside the nervous system. It is a network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages called hormones. Instead of using nerves to transmit information, this system uses blood vessels. Different hormones produce different effects (behaviours).

Endogenous Pacemakers

Endogenous pacemakers are internal mechanisms that govern biological rhythms, in particular the circadian sleep/wake cycle. Although endogenous pacemakers are internal biological clocks, they can be affected by the environment. The most important endogenous pacemaker is the suprachiasmatic nucleus which is closely linked to the pineal gland, both of which are influential in maintaining the circadian sleep-wake cycle.

Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

Event-Related Potentials (ERP) use electrodes that are attached to the scalp, as with EEG. However, the key difference is that a stimulus is presented to a participant (for example a picture/sound) and the researcher looks for activity related to that stimulus.

Excitation

Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline) make the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire: if an excitatory neurotransmitter like noradrenaline binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire.

Exogenous Zeitgebers

Exogenous zeitgebers influence biological rhythms: these can be described as environmental events that are responsible for resetting the biological clock of an organism. They can include social cues such as meal times and social activities, but the most important zeitgeber is light, which is responsible for resetting the body clock each day, keeping it on a 24-hour cycle.

Fight or Flight

When someone enters a potentially stressful situation, the amygdala (part of the limbic system) is activated. The amygdala responds to sensory input (what we see, hear, smell, etc.) and connects sensory input with emotions associated with the fight or flight response (e.g. fear and anger).

Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain-scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task. fMRI works on the premise that neurons in the brain that are the most active (during a task) use the most energy. An fMRI creates a dynamic (moving) 3D map of the brain, highlighting which areas are involved in different neural activities.

Functional Recovery

Functional recovery is the transfer of functions from a damaged area of the brain after trauma, to other undamaged areas. Functional recovery can take place through a process termed neuronal unmasking, where 'dormant' synapses (which have not received enough input to be active), open connections to compensate for a damaged area of the brain.

Glands

The endocrine system is a network of glands across the body that secretes chemical messages called hormones. The pituitary gland is sometimes known as the master gland, because the hormones released by the pituitary gland control and stimulate the release of hormones from other glands in the endocrine system.

Other examples include: the testes, which release androgens, which include the main hormone testosterone; the ovaries, which release oestrogen that controls the regulation of the female reproductive system, including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

Hemispheric Lateralisation

Lateralisation is the fact that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and that each hemisphere has functional specialisations, e.g. the left is dominant for language, and the right excels at visual motor tasks.

Hormones

Each gland produces a different hormone. The word 'hormone' comes from the Greek work 'hormao' which means 'excite', as hormones excite (stimulate) a particular part of the body.

Infradian Rhythm

Another important biological rhythm is infradian rhythms that last longer than 24 hours and can be weekly, monthly or annually. A monthly infradian rhythm is the female menstrual cycle, which is regulated by hormones that either promote ovulation or stimulate the uterus for fertilisation.

Inhibition

Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. GABA) make the post synaptic cell less likely to fire: if an inhibitory neurotransmitter like GABA binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will result in an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire.

Localisation of Function

Localisation of function is the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) are correlated with certain locations within the brain.

Motor Area

The motor area is responsible for voluntary movements by sending signals to the muscles in the body.

Motor Neuron

Motor neurons are found in the central nervous system (CNS) and control muscle movements. When motor neurons are stimulated, they release neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on muscles to trigger a response, which lead to movement.

Nervous System

The nervous system is divided into the two main components: 1) the central nervous system (CNS) and 2) the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The nervous system is a network of nerves cells that transmit messages between different parts of the body, allowing communication to take place.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are electrochemical messengers that transmit nerve impulses across the synaptic gap during the process of synaptic transmission. Some neurotransmitters are excitatory and some are inhibitory. Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline) make the post synaptic cell more likely to fire, whereas inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. GABA) make them less likely to fire. For example, if an excitatory neurotransmitter like noradrenaline binds to the postsynaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire. Whereas, if an inhibitory neurotransmitter like GABA binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will result in an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The role of the parasympathetic nervous system is to relax the body, and return us to our 'normal' resting state. Consequently, the parasympathetic nervous system slows down our heart rate and breathing rate, and reduces our blood pressure. Furthermore, any functions that were previously slowed down during a fight or flight reaction are started again (e.g. digestion).

Peripheral Nervous System

The role of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is to relay messages (nerve impulses) from the CNS (brain and spinal cord) to the rest of the body. The PNS consists of two main components: 1) the somatic nervous system and 2) the autonomic nervous system.

Plasticity

Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt in reaction to the environment and through experience. An example of this is when learning a new skill develops neuronal connections in the related area of the brain.

Post-Mortem Examination

A post-mortem examination is when researchers study the physical brain of a person who displayed a particular behaviour while they were alive that suggested possible brain damage. An example of this technique is the work of Broca, who examined the brain of a man who displayed speech problems when he was alive. It was subsequently discovered that he had a lesion in the area of the brain important for speech production that later became known as the Broca's area.

Relay Neuron

Relay neurons are found between sensory input neurons and motor output/response neurons. Relay neurons are found in the brain and spinal cord and allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.

Sensory Neuron

Sensory neurons are found in receptors such as the eyes, ears, tongue and skin, and carry nerve impulses to the spinal cord and brain. When these nerve impulses reach the brain, they are translated into 'sensations', such as vision, hearing, taste and touch. However, not all sensory neurons reach the brain, as some neurons stop at the spinal cord, allowing for quick reflex actions.

Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system maintains communication between the CNS and the outside world. The somatic nervous system is made up of sensory receptors that carry information to the spinal cord and brain, and motor pathways that allow the brain to control movement. Therefore, the role of the somatic nervous system is to carry sensory information from the outside world to the brain and provide muscle responses via the motor pathways.

Somatosensory Area

The somatosensory area receives incoming sensory information from the skin to produce sensations related to pressure, pain, temperature, etc.

Split Brain Research

Split-brain patients are individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure where the corpus callosum bundle of nerve fibres that connects the two hemispheres is cut. This was usually carried out in order to reduce the symptoms of severe epilepsy.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is typically involved in responses that prepare the body for fight or flight. Impulses travel from the sympathetic nervous system to organs in the body to help us prepare for action when we are faced with a dangerous situation. For example, our heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate increase, while less important functions such as digestion, salivation and urination.

Synaptic Transmission

Synaptic transmission is the process by which one neuron communicates with another. Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse known as action potential. Once the action potential reaches the end of the axon it needs to be transferred to another neuron or tissue. It must cross over the synaptic gap between the presynaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron. At the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles, which contain chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters. When the electrical impulse (action potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles, they release their contents of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then carry the signal across the synaptic gap. They bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic cell, thereby completing the process of synaptic transmission.

Ultradian Rhythm

Ultradian rhythms last fewer than 24 hours and can be found in the pattern of human sleep. This cycle alternates between REM (rapid eye movement) and NREM (non-rapid movement) sleep and consists of five stages. The cycle starts at light sleep, progressing to deep sleep then into REM sleep, where brain waves speed up and dreaming occurs. This repeats itself about every 90 minutes throughout the night and a person can experience up to five complete sleep cycles each night.

Visual Area

The visual area receives and processes visual information. The visual area contains different parts that process different types of information including colour, shape or movement.

Wernicke's Area

The Wernicke's area is found in the left temporal lobe and is thought to be involved in language processing/comprehension.


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biopsychology definitions

Adrenaline

The adrenal medulla is responsible for releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline, which play a key role in the fight or flight response. Adrenaline causes a number of physiological changes to prepare the body for fight or flight (e.g. increased heart rate, pupil dilation, etc.)

Auditory Area

The auditory area is responsible for analysing and processing acoustic information.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system plays an important role in homeostasis, which maintains in balance internal processes like body temperature, heart rate and blood pressure. The autonomic nervous system consists of motor pathways only, and has two components: 1) the sympathetic nervous system and 2) the parasympathetic nervous system.

Biological Rhythms

Biological rhythms are cyclical patterns within biological systems that have evolved in response to environmental influences, e.g. day and night. There are two key factors that govern biological rhythms: endogenous pacemakers (internal), the body's biological clocks, and exogenous zeitgebers (external), which are changes in the environment.

Broca's Area

The Broca's area is found in the left frontal lobe and is thought to be involved in language production.

Central Nervous System

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain provides conscious awareness and is involved in all psychological processes. The brain consists of many regions, which are responsible for different functions.

Circadian Rhythm

One biological rhythm is the 24-hour circadian rhythm (often known as the 'body clock'), which is reset by levels of light. The word circadian is from the Latin 'circa' which means about, and 'dia' which means day. Examples of circadian rhythms include the sleep-wave cycle and body temperature.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An electroencephalogram (EEG) works on the premise that information is processed in the brain as electrical activity in the form of action potentials or nerve impulses, transmitted along neurons. EEG scanners measure this electrical activity through electrodes attached to the scalp. Small electrical charges are detected by the electrodes, and are graphed over a period of time, indicating the level of activity in the brain.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system works alongside the nervous system. It is a network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages called hormones. Instead of using nerves to transmit information, this system uses blood vessels. Different hormones produce different effects (behaviours).

Endogenous Pacemakers

Endogenous pacemakers are internal mechanisms that govern biological rhythms, in particular the circadian sleep/wake cycle. Although endogenous pacemakers are internal biological clocks, they can be affected by the environment. The most important endogenous pacemaker is the suprachiasmatic nucleus which is closely linked to the pineal gland, both of which are influential in maintaining the circadian sleep-wake cycle.

Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

Event-Related Potentials (ERP) use electrodes that are attached to the scalp, as with EEG. However, the key difference is that a stimulus is presented to a participant (for example a picture/sound) and the researcher looks for activity related to that stimulus.

Excitation

Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline) make the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire: if an excitatory neurotransmitter like noradrenaline binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire.

Exogenous Zeitgebers

Exogenous zeitgebers influence biological rhythms: these can be described as environmental events that are responsible for resetting the biological clock of an organism. They can include social cues such as meal times and social activities, but the most important zeitgeber is light, which is responsible for resetting the body clock each day, keeping it on a 24-hour cycle.

Fight or Flight

When someone enters a potentially stressful situation, the amygdala (part of the limbic system) is activated. The amygdala responds to sensory input (what we see, hear, smell, etc.) and connects sensory input with emotions associated with the fight or flight response (e.g. fear and anger).

Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain-scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task. fMRI works on the premise that neurons in the brain that are the most active (during a task) use the most energy. An fMRI creates a dynamic (moving) 3D map of the brain, highlighting which areas are involved in different neural activities.

Functional Recovery

Functional recovery is the transfer of functions from a damaged area of the brain after trauma, to other undamaged areas. Functional recovery can take place through a process termed neuronal unmasking, where 'dormant' synapses (which have not received enough input to be active), open connections to compensate for a damaged area of the brain.

Glands

The endocrine system is a network of glands across the body that secretes chemical messages called hormones. The pituitary gland is sometimes known as the master gland, because the hormones released by the pituitary gland control and stimulate the release of hormones from other glands in the endocrine system.

Other examples include: the testes, which release androgens, which include the main hormone testosterone; the ovaries, which release oestrogen that controls the regulation of the female reproductive system, including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

Hemispheric Lateralisation

Lateralisation is the fact that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and that each hemisphere has functional specialisations, e.g. the left is dominant for language, and the right excels at visual motor tasks.

Hormones

Each gland produces a different hormone. The word 'hormone' comes from the Greek work 'hormao' which means 'excite', as hormones excite (stimulate) a particular part of the body.

Infradian Rhythm

Another important biological rhythm is infradian rhythms that last longer than 24 hours and can be weekly, monthly or annually. A monthly infradian rhythm is the female menstrual cycle, which is regulated by hormones that either promote ovulation or stimulate the uterus for fertilisation.

Inhibition

Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. GABA) make the post synaptic cell less likely to fire: if an inhibitory neurotransmitter like GABA binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will result in an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire.

Localisation of Function

Localisation of function is the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) are correlated with certain locations within the brain.

Motor Area

The motor area is responsible for voluntary movements by sending signals to the muscles in the body.

Motor Neuron

Motor neurons are found in the central nervous system (CNS) and control muscle movements. When motor neurons are stimulated, they release neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on muscles to trigger a response, which lead to movement.

Nervous System

The nervous system is divided into the two main components: 1) the central nervous system (CNS) and 2) the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The nervous system is a network of nerves cells that transmit messages between different parts of the body, allowing communication to take place.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are electrochemical messengers that transmit nerve impulses across the synaptic gap during the process of synaptic transmission. Some neurotransmitters are excitatory and some are inhibitory. Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline) make the post synaptic cell more likely to fire, whereas inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. GABA) make them less likely to fire. For example, if an excitatory neurotransmitter like noradrenaline binds to the postsynaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire. Whereas, if an inhibitory neurotransmitter like GABA binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will result in an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The role of the parasympathetic nervous system is to relax the body, and return us to our 'normal' resting state. Consequently, the parasympathetic nervous system slows down our heart rate and breathing rate, and reduces our blood pressure. Furthermore, any functions that were previously slowed down during a fight or flight reaction are started again (e.g. digestion).

Peripheral Nervous System

The role of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is to relay messages (nerve impulses) from the CNS (brain and spinal cord) to the rest of the body. The PNS consists of two main components: 1) the somatic nervous system and 2) the autonomic nervous system.

Plasticity

Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt in reaction to the environment and through experience. An example of this is when learning a new skill develops neuronal connections in the related area of the brain.

Post-Mortem Examination

A post-mortem examination is when researchers study the physical brain of a person who displayed a particular behaviour while they were alive that suggested possible brain damage. An example of this technique is the work of Broca, who examined the brain of a man who displayed speech problems when he was alive. It was subsequently discovered that he had a lesion in the area of the brain important for speech production that later became known as the Broca's area.

Relay Neuron

Relay neurons are found between sensory input neurons and motor output/response neurons. Relay neurons are found in the brain and spinal cord and allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.

Sensory Neuron

Sensory neurons are found in receptors such as the eyes, ears, tongue and skin, and carry nerve impulses to the spinal cord and brain. When these nerve impulses reach the brain, they are translated into 'sensations', such as vision, hearing, taste and touch. However, not all sensory neurons reach the brain, as some neurons stop at the spinal cord, allowing for quick reflex actions.

Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system maintains communication between the CNS and the outside world. The somatic nervous system is made up of sensory receptors that carry information to the spinal cord and brain, and motor pathways that allow the brain to control movement. Therefore, the role of the somatic nervous system is to carry sensory information from the outside world to the brain and provide muscle responses via the motor pathways.

Somatosensory Area

The somatosensory area receives incoming sensory information from the skin to produce sensations related to pressure, pain, temperature, etc.

Split Brain Research

Split-brain patients are individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure where the corpus callosum bundle of nerve fibres that connects the two hemispheres is cut. This was usually carried out in order to reduce the symptoms of severe epilepsy.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is typically involved in responses that prepare the body for fight or flight. Impulses travel from the sympathetic nervous system to organs in the body to help us prepare for action when we are faced with a dangerous situation. For example, our heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate increase, while less important functions such as digestion, salivation and urination.

Synaptic Transmission

Synaptic transmission is the process by which one neuron communicates with another. Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse known as action potential. Once the action potential reaches the end of the axon it needs to be transferred to another neuron or tissue. It must cross over the synaptic gap between the presynaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron. At the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles, which contain chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters. When the electrical impulse (action potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles, they release their contents of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then carry the signal across the synaptic gap. They bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic cell, thereby completing the process of synaptic transmission.

Ultradian Rhythm

Ultradian rhythms last fewer than 24 hours and can be found in the pattern of human sleep. This cycle alternates between REM (rapid eye movement) and NREM (non-rapid movement) sleep and consists of five stages. The cycle starts at light sleep, progressing to deep sleep then into REM sleep, where brain waves speed up and dreaming occurs. This repeats itself about every 90 minutes throughout the night and a person can experience up to five complete sleep cycles each night.

Visual Area

The visual area receives and processes visual information. The visual area contains different parts that process different types of information including colour, shape or movement.

Wernicke's Area

The Wernicke's area is found in the left temporal lobe and is thought to be involved in language processing/comprehension.