The 1960s: A Decade of Change

The 1960s was a pivotal decade marked by significant social and political upheaval, including:

The civil rights movement gained momentum with various key events:

Sit-ins in Greensboro, North Carolina: Black university students protested segregation at Woolworth's lunch counters, leading to the desegregation of the store after five months.
Freedom Rides (1961): The Congress on Racial Equality (CORE) organized Freedom Rides to integrate interstate buses. Volunteers faced violence in the Deep South, but their efforts led to the desegregation of interstate buses by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC).
Demonstrations: Over 70,000 people participated in various demonstrations.
Albany, Georgia Protests: Martin Luther King's protests did not end discrimination in the city.
Integration of the University of Mississippi: JFK ordered federal troops to escort James Meredith to class.
Birmingham, Alabama Protests (1963):
- Martin Luther King protested in Birmingham, where numerous racially motivated bombings had occurred.
- Television coverage of police brutality, including the use of dogs and water cannons against peaceful protesters, horrified the nation.
- King was jailed and wrote the "Letter from Birmingham Jail."
March on Washington (1963):
- The largest public demonstration in American history at the time.
- King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.
- Organizers called for a civil rights bill, help for the poor, public works, a higher minimum wage, and an end to employment discrimination.

Civil Rights Act of 1964:
- Prohibited discrimination in employment, schools, hospitals, and privately owned public places.
- Banned discrimination based on sex.
Voting Rights Act of 1965:
- Gave the federal government the power to oversee voting in areas with a history of discrimination.
Hart-Cellar Act of 1965:
- Eliminated national origin quotas, allowing more Asian immigrants.
- Introduced quotas on immigrants from the Western Hemisphere.

John F. Kennedy:
- Elected in 1960, assassinated in 1963.
- Initially hesitant on civil rights but later became a supporter due to the movement's momentum.
- Recognized the contradiction of advocating for freedom abroad while maintaining racial inequality at home.
Lyndon B. Johnson:
- Became president after Kennedy's assassination.
- Pushed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 through Congress.
- Launched the Great Society programs.

Lyndon Johnson's domestic initiatives (1965-1967) aimed to expand the promises of the New Deal. These programs included:

Medicare and Medicaid: Health insurance programs for the elderly and the poor.
War on Poverty: Focused on training and social programs rather than economic solutions, which did not fully address the shift from manufacturing to lower-wage service jobs.

The gap between whites and blacks in education, income, and skilled employment narrowed.
Deindustrialization, urban decay, and suburban segregation persisted, leaving the median wealth of white households ten times greater than that of African Americans.
Nearly a quarter of black children lived in poverty.

Persistent poverty, discrimination, and racism led to a shift from integration towards Black Power, which included:

Celebration of African American culture.
Criticism of white suppression.
Urban Riots:
- 1964: Riots began in northern cities.
- 1965: Watts riots in Los Angeles resulted in 35 deaths, 900 injuries, and $30,000,000$ in damages.
- 1967: Riots in Newark and Detroit.
- 1968: The Kerner Report blamed the riots on segregation, poverty, and white racism.
Malcolm X: Advocated for self-reliance and was seen by some as promoting violence. He was assassinated in 1965.
Black Panther Party: Carried guns for self-defense and offered neighborhood services.
CORE: Abandoned integration after 1965 and called for Black Power.

The Black Power movement alienated some white supporters and, by the end of the 1960s, the anti-war movement gained more attention.

Anti-War Movement: Galvanized students, even those with deferments.
Latino Activism: Similar to Black Power, but tied to labor justice, especially the United Farm Workers led by Cesar Chavez.
American Indian Movement (AIM): Founded in 1968, took over Alcatraz to symbolize stolen land and fought for tribal control over education, economic development, and restitution.
Gay Liberation Movement: Sparked by the Stonewall Inn riots in June 1969, advocating for gay rights.

Rachel Carson's Silent Spring: Exposed the dangers of pesticides and environmental pollution.
Legislative Successes: Bipartisan support led to the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and Endangered Species Act during the Nixon era.

Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique: Described the "problem that has no name," i.e., misogyny.
National Organization of Women (NOW): Founded in 1966 to advocate for women's rights.
Systemic Discrimination:
- In 1963, women made up only $5.8$ % of doctors and $3.7$ % of lawyers.
- Fewer than $10$ % of doctoral degrees went to women.
Equal Pay Act of 1963: Addressed wage disparities.
Key Issues: Equal pay, childcare, and abortion.

The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren expanded civil rights through landmark decisions:

First Amendment: Expanded protections of free speech and assembly.
Freedom of the Press: New York Times v. Sullivan.
Loving v. Virginia: Struck down laws banning interracial marriage.
Rights of the Accused:
- Gideon v. Wainwright: Secured the right to an attorney.
- Mapp v. Ohio: Established the exclusionary rule.
- Miranda v. Arizona: Established the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney during police questioning.
Right to Privacy:
- Griswold v. Connecticut: Dealt with contraception.
- Roe v. Wade: Guaranteed a woman's right to an abortion in the first trimester.

1968 was a tumultuous year marked by:

Tet Offensive in Vietnam: Increased anti-war protests.
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.: April 4, 1968, led to racial violence.
Democratic Convention in Chicago: Anti-war protesters clashed with police.
Prague Spring Uprising: Crushed by the Soviets.
Student Demonstrations in Mexico City: Killed by police.
Student Protests in Paris: Widespread unrest.

Increased participation of racial minorities in mainstream American life, but urban poverty remained a problem.
Transformation of the status of women.
Changes in expectations from government, particularly regarding old age coverage.
Undermined confidence in national leaders.
Changed relationships between young and old, men and women, and white and non-white individuals.