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  • [Bonds]()
      * ionic bonds: transfer electrons
      * covalent bonds: sharing- polar/unequal sharing and non-polar/equal ==sharing==
      * hydrogen: weak bonds between hydrogen and negatively charged items
      * hydrophobic interactions: how non-polar compounds congregate t**==ogether- l==**==ipids==

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  • pH
      * acid-base/ 0-14, # of H ions determines scale; logarithmic- pH 3 = 10-3 = 1/10*==00==**    blood- 7.4, stomach- 2, small intestine- 8; enzymes are specific to pH
  • Water properties
      * polarity
      * cohesion: attraction to other water molecules
      * adhesion: attraction to other charged compounds
      * low density when frozen
      * versatile solvent
      * high heat of fusion/vaporization
      * surface tension
  • Organic molecules - monomers are simplest form of all; monomers join together via dehydration synthesis (loss of water) to make polymers; polymers are broken down via hydrolysis (input of water)
      * Carbohydrates- CHO 1:2:1 ratio, monomer= monosaccharides, 2=disaccharides, 3 or more= polysaccharides
        * Used for energy (cell respiration)
        * Examples
          * glucose- immediate energy to make ATP
          * starch- stored energy in plants
          * glycogen- stored energy in animals (stored in liver)
          * cellulose- plant cell wall
          * Lipids – C, H, O (not a 1:2:1 ratio) *P only in phospholipids (1) fats, waxes, oils and sterols (2) Saturated fats have single bonds between carbons, unsaturated fats have at least one double bond between carbons (kinky); plants make polyunsaturated; animals make monounsaturated (3) Phospholipids make up cell membranes (double layer) and are amphipathic- hydrophilic and hydrophobic (4) Uses- in all membranes; stored energy, protection, insulation, myelin sheath of nerves c. Proteins- C, H, O, N (may have other elements in R group) (1) Monomer- amino acids (20 total types), 2=dipeptide, 3 or more= polypeptide (2) Parts of amino acid= carboxyl group (COOH) on one end, amino group on the other end (NH2), central carbon and variable R group (can be hydrophobic or hydrophilic) which determines chemical properties. (3) Protein Folding- shape determines function; primary= a.a. chain; secondary= beta pleated sheet or alpha helix( hydrogen bonds); tertiary=globular; folds in on itself (disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions; ionic bonding); quartenary= more than one polypeptide. (4) Uses- protein carriers in cell membrane, antibodies, hemoglobin, enzymes, most hormones� Page 3 AP Biology: 2013 Exam Review d. Nucleic acids – C, H, O, N (1) Monomer= nucleotide, 2 = dinucleotide, 2 or more polynucleotide (2) Nucleotide made up of sugar, phosphate and base (3) Used to store genetic information (4) DNA is double stranded, has deoxyribose, A, G, C, T (5) RNA is single stranded, has ribose, A, G, C, U (6) mRNA- copies genetic message; rRNA- attaches mRNA and makes up ribosomes (most common);tRNA- carries amino acids; DNA- carries genetic code
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