Court of Master Sommeliers Introductory Course Notes 1

Philosophy of Curriculum

Our philosophy revolves around the three, mutually reinforcing pillars of study:

1. Theoretical Knowledge informs one’s ability to taste wines discerningly by building an understanding of the factors that determine their characteristics.

2. Tasting Experience reinforces theoretical knowledge by providing memorable examples of how differences in climate or production techniques result in significantly different wine styles.

3. Service, Salesmanship, and Hospitality gains from theoretical knowledge and growth of an extensive inventory of tasting experiences can contribute to improved service, as these will inform practical decisions regarding appropriate glassware or proper serving temperature.

Theoretical Knowledge

This course provides fast-paced instruction regarding the essential aspects of the world’s major wine regions.

The Deductive Tasting Method

Students are introduced to the Deductive Tasting Method with opportunities to practice the method with fellow students and Master Sommeliers in six tastings over the course of two days.

Service, Salesmanship, and Hospitality

The Court of Master Sommeliers service standards are demonstrated and reviewed.

Viticulture

Viticulture is the art — and science — of vine growing. Many factors determine where vines can be grown to produce grapes suitable for fine wine. Moreover, specific viticultural conditions and practices will affect the character and quality of finished wines. Some of these factors are associated with natural conditions, whereas others are human in origin, resulting from decisions made by growers in vineyards. The list of factors below can be used as a guide or outline. We will address each of these factors to understand their role and then apply them to the regions we study.

Factors of Production:

1. Location/geography

2. Climate

3. Topography/aspect

4. Soil

5. Grape varieties planted

6. Viticultural practices

7. Vinification practices (in the next section)

8. Harvest

9. Yearly weather/vintage variation

10. Terroir

11. Regional Wine Laws which can influence all of these factors

12. Historical background - historical influences that shape a wine region, which can be among the most important factors

Location/Geography

The first factor to discuss is where the vineyard — or potential vineyard — is located.

• Site Selection: Where exactly will the grapes be grown?

• Goals: What are the specific goals of the winemaker or owner of the winery? Is it large scale production or a small boutique winery? The decision of where to plant the grapes will be directly influenced by the initial goals, in concert with regional wine laws and financial considerations.

Regional Laws

As we will discover in future sections of this course, wine laws are very specific to each country, region, and sub-region, with differences that can hold important implications. Some wine regions are extremely strict regarding which vines can be planted in particular places, whereas others are more open and flexible.

Financial Considerations

Planting a vineyard or starting a winery costs a good deal of money regardless of location, yet costs vary dramatically from region to region. Prime real estate in the Napa Valley or Burgundy would provide a new enterprise with strong initial credibility, but also would prove to be extremely expensive. By contrast, establishing a vineyard and winery in a less famous region could make for a slower start in terms of reputation, but involve much lower land costs.

Climate

The climate of a particular region directly determines whether grapes can be grown at all and strongly influences which varieties can thrive. Most importantly, climate determines wine style.

• 30°– 50°: Most grape varieties thrive in temperate climates. Most vine growing occurs between the 30º and 50º latitudes in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. However, grapes can be grown in extreme climates above and below these latitudinal lines.

Latitudinal Zones of Wine Growing

• Describing Climate — Large to Small: When discussing climate, we can begin by looking at the “big picture,” or the macroclimate, of an entire wine region. As we consider a particular vineyard, we would be looking at the mesoclimate. Once we get down to a single row of vines or even a specific vine, we are describing a microclimate.

Climate Definitions

There are many patterns of weather and climate across the globe, but when considering viticultural areas, several specific climate types are important:

• Continental: A climate characterized by strong annual variation in temperature due to the lack of proximity to significant bodies of water with moderating influences. Hotter summers than in maritime climates, often with cold winter temperatures that can be extreme.

• Maritime: A climate influenced by a large body of water such as a sea or ocean. Marked by mild temperatures that can fluctuate from year to year, causing vintage variation.

• Mediterranean: Summers are hot and dry, aside from the immediate coastal areas. Along the coasts, summers are mild due to proximity to cold water currents, but storms can also result as a consequence.

• High Desert: Summers are generally hot and dry. Daytime temperatures are high, but dramatic drops are often experienced overnight.

Temperature Definitions

We can further define or describe the climate types as:

• Cool

• Moderate

• Warm

• Hot

Important Factors That Affect Climate

Once you know the basic definitions of climate types, it is important to know the various factors that can influence or alter them:

• Diurnal Shifts: The difference between average daytime high and nighttime low temperatures. This can affect the ripening of grapes and the balancing of acidity and sugar.

• Sunshine Hours: The number of sunshine hours that a vineyard or wine region receives in a given vintage year or growing season.

Threats

Forces of nature can be potential threats to vineyard health and viability:

• Frost or Freeze: Can be a hazard in both spring and fall. Winter freezing can cause damage if severe and can kill vines outright. In spring, frost can damage or freeze and kill delicate buds or flowers, preventing the vine from setting grape clusters.

• Hail: Can shatter grapes on the vine.

• Strong Winds: Can blow vines over or blow buds and flowers off the vine, preventing grapes from growing.

Climate Moderators

These can have a strong influence on climate by warming or cooling it:

• Bodies of Water: Can warm or cool a wine region, including rivers, lakes, and oceans.

• Mountains: Can protect a wine region from surrounding weather or climate influences.

  • Rain Shadow: A dry area on one side of a mountain opposite the wind, rain, and generally poor weather. Many important wine regions in the world exist in rain shadows.

  • Altitude/Elevation: With every 100 meters of rise in elevation, temperatures drop by approximately one degree. In warm to hot wine-growing regions, increased elevation provides cooler temperatures that help to slow grape ripening and produces more balanced wines.

  • Wind: Depending on the direction from which winds originate, wind can cool a growing region (if originating over cool ocean waters, for example) or lend warmth and drier air (if originating from a desert), helping prevent mold or rot.

Topography

The surface features of a given area can have strong influences on local climate and viticulture. Some topographic elements having a strong influence on viticulture include:

• Local Elevation/Altitude: As mentioned above, temperature decreases as elevation increases.

• Slope: Is the vineyard located on the slope of a hillside or on a flat valley floor?

  • Steeper Hillsides: Provide better drainage of soil, are often less fertile due to erosion and lower chance of frost, as cool air will fall from the upper slopes. However, these hillsides are harder to maintain during the growing season and to harvest.

  • Valley Floors: Pool air, are susceptible to frost, and may sometimes have overly fertile soil.

Aspect

Slopes facing the sun during much of the day are the warmest, whereas those facing away from the sun are the coolest. Either can be desirable depending on the climate of the region and on whether ripening or retention of acidity is most desired.

Proximity to Water

How close is a vineyard to lakes, oceans, or rivers? Proximity significantly impacts temperature moderation and moisture availability.

Soil Type

There are many different soil types in the world’s wine regions. Each has different properties that affect water supply for vine growth. Vines can grow in many soil types. Many of the world’s greatest vineyards are planted on very poor or infertile soils.

Important Properties of Various Soil Types Are:

• Drainage of water

• Water retention

• Sun reflection

Examples of Different Soil Types:

• Granite

• Limestone/chalk

• Marl

• Schist

• Clay

• Sand

• Silt

• Gravel

Grapes: A Look from the Inside Out

Let’s take a closer look at a grape, its parts, and what each contributes to wine:

• Skins:

  1. Tannins: Lend structure, but also astringency in red wines.

  2. Color: Provides an intensity and hue from molecules located in the skins of grapes that are different for each grape variety.

  3. Flavor: The most important aromas and flavors are located in the skins of the grapes and are unique to each variety.

• Pulp:

  1. Water: Majority resides in the pulp of grapes.

  2. Sugar: Increases as grapes ripen.

  3. Acids: Decrease as grapes ripen.

  4. Seeds/Pips: Can produce bitter flavors if pressed.

Grape Varieties: Defining Differences

• Grapes: The fruit of a vining plant of the genus Vitis. In the world of wine, there are quite a few species of vining plants that produce grapes for wine production including:

  • Vitis labrusca

  • Vitis riparia

  • Vitis vinifera: Our focus.

    • A species native to the Mediterranean, Europe, and southwestern Asia.

    • The most common species for quality grape production, with upwards of 10,000 varieties.

    • Examples:

    • White grapes: Chardonnay, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc

    • Red grapes: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, Pinot Noir.

Grape Variety: Matching Soil and Climate

When choosing a grape variety for a specific vineyard or region, there are many factors to consider. First and foremost is local wine law -- what is planted and where is often dictated by local regulations.

Other Factors Include:

• Climate Compatibility: Is the particular grape variety well-suited to the vineyard locale? Will it ripen? Or, conversely, is the climate too warm to produce quality grapes with natural balance?

• Soil Compatibility: Will the particular grape variety grow well in the soil type of the vineyard?

Viticultural Propagation

This term refers to grape vine breeding. The following may seem technical, but these are helpful common terms for understanding vine production, certain wine types, and wine laws:

• Hybrids: Are vines of two or more different species combined to produce a new variety (e.g., Vitis vinifera x Vitis labrusca). Research an example of a hybrid.

• Crosses: Are vines of the same species combined to create a new variety (e.g., Vitis vinifera x Vitis vinifera). Research an example of a crossing.

• Clones: Are identical genetic reproductions of a single vine. Research an example of a common grape variety that is known for having many clones.

Why Do Hybrids, Crosses, and Clones Exist? Why Are They Created?

Cause and Effect

Climate, Ripeness, and Their Connection to Wine Style:

• Cool Climate:

  • Grapes ripen slowly and moderately.

  • Less sugar is produced.

  • Acidity remains high.

  • Less alcohol potential.

  • Flavors are more tart and lean, less ripe and juicy.

• Warm Climate:

  • Grapes ripen fully.

  • More sugar is produced.

  • Acidity is lower.

  • Higher alcohol potential.

  • Flavors are more ripe, lush, and juicy.

In the Vineyard Viticultural Practices

When looking at all the factors affecting vine growing, specific influences that humans exert in the vineyard must be examined, which affect how and where vines are planted to create balance with the topography and soil, and to maximize or even minimize growth.

Vineyard Architecture

• Vine Spacing: How the vines are spaced out in rows. Some are planted far apart and some are planted very close together.

• Vine Training: Vines will continue to grow unless a vineyard manager controls the growth and tells the vine what to do. Vines are trained to grow in specific ways to control the vine’s production of grapes, leaves, and wood.

Yield Management

Vineyard managers can control how much fruit the vine produces, measured in:

• Tons of grapes per acre

• Hectoliters per hectare

• Pounds or kilos per vine

• Green Harvest: A crop-thinning method of removing unripe grape bunches from the vine before harvest to decrease yields, allowing the vine to focus on fewer, higher-quality bunches.

Vineyard Management

Key elements include:

• Canopy Management: Managing the growth of the vine’s leaves for shading or exposing grape bunches, or to determine the flow of air through vine rows.

• Irrigation: Providing the vine with water through various methods governed by law in many European wine regions.

• Pests and Vine Disease: Various insects affect vines. Some are beneficial, while others inhibit growth and grape production.

  • Phylloxera: A vine louse that destroyed a third of the world’s vines beginning in the late 1800s.

• Fertilizers: Used to enhance soil fertility and provide nutrients to the vines.

• Anti-Fungal Treatments: Sprayed to prevent mildew and rot, which can severely compromise fruit quality.

Harvest

When and how grapes are picked can significantly influence wine style and quality.

• Timing of Picking: When exactly are the grapes picked?

  • Grape maturity is determined by various measures.

  • Sugar Ripeness: Amount of sugar in the grapes.

  • Physiological Ripeness: Overall ripeness including stems and seeds.

  • Tannin Ripeness: Specifically associated with tannins in grape skins and seeds.

• Number of Vineyard Passes: Some winemakers make multiple passes through a vineyard, selecting only ripe bunches, leaving underripe grapes until ready.

Method of Harvest

• Hand Harvesting vs. Mechanical Harvesting: Hand harvesting is slower and labor-intensive, allowing selectivity, whereas mechanical harvesting can be economical and fast but less selective, often collecting debris that could affect quality.

• Bin Size: Harvesting in small bins allows for careful grape selection, while larger bins can lead to bursting berries and compromising quality.

Yearly Weather and Vintage Variation

Every growing season varies depending on the climate and other environmental variables. Nature significantly influences wine style and quality, affecting the perception of vintages.

Terroir

Terroir is a French concept referring to the entire set of factors that influence the development of the vine’s fruit and its characteristics upon vinification.

Regional Wine Law

Government regulation may dictate which grapes can be grown in certain regions, how they should be grown, and when they can be picked.

Historical Background

Historical occurrences have led to regulations on grape production and led to specific styles of wines in certain regions.

Quiz Questions

1. Which term refers to the climate of a single vineyard site? (a) Mesoclimate, (b) Macroclimate, (c) Microclimate, (d) Zone

2. Most of the world’s vineyards are planted:
   (a) Between 30º and 50º latitude lines,
   (b) As far north and as far south as possible,
   (c) As close to the equator as possible,
   (d) In wind-prone areas

3. Which of these is not a moderator that can help warm a microclimate? (a) Wind, (b) Rivers, (c) Soil, (d) Vine training system

4. Which type of climate is influenced by a large body of water? (a) Maritime, (b) Mediterranean, (c) Continental, (d) High Desert

5. What is phylloxera? (a) A soil type, (b) A vine louse that destroyed many of the world’s vineyards in the mid-to-late 1800s, (c) A hybrid, (d) A species of vines

6. Name three positive effects of wind in a vineyard.

7. What is a rain shadow? Name three wine regions affected by rain shadows.

8. Most quality grape varieties are made from which vine species?

9. Explain why “green harvesting” is practiced.

Vinification The Art of Winemaking

Learning Points

After studying this section, a student should be able to:

• Know the steps involved in making white, red, and rosé wines.

• Understand factors influencing winemaking decisions that affect the style and quality of finished wines.

• Recognize key winemaking terms.

• Understand different techniques employed in red, white, and rosé winemaking.

Keep in Mind:

• Utilize the “Factors of Production” list to understand every region or subject discussed in this course.

• Adopt cause-and-effect analysis to understand how various factors result in style and quality of finished wines.

Vinification

Once the grapes arrive at the winery, the process of vinification begins. This involves decisions and practices made by the winemaker affecting quality and style.

Vinification Factors

• Pre-Fermentation Factors

• Fermentation

• Types of Winemaking o White, Rosé, and Red Wine o Sparkling Wine o Sweet and Fortified Wine

• Fermentation Vessels

• Aging and Maturation

• Important Vinification Terms

• Preparation for Bottling

• Packaging

Pre-Fermentation Factors

• Sorting: When grapes arrive at the winery, they are sorted to remove leaves, branches, damaged fruit, or unwanted items. Sorting can be hand-done, either cluster by cluster or selecting individual grapes.

• De-stemming: Involves separating the stems from berries in clusters, which can alter flavor and style.

• Crushing: Often completed in a single mechanized stage, stems are removed, and grapes are crushed to release juice for fermentation. Gentle crushing is optimal to avoid bitterness and tannins from the skins.

Fermentation

Definition: Fermentation is a chemical reaction whereby sugar from ripe grape juice plus yeast (ambient or inoculated by the winemaker) produces alcohol, carbon dioxide (CO2), flavors, aromas, and heat.

Fermentation Recipe:

Sugar from ripe grape juice + Yeast (ambient or inoculated) → Alcohol, CO₂, Flavors and aromas, Heat.

Winemaking Steps

Fermentation Vessel

The size, shape, and material of the container used for fermentation can directly affect the aroma, flavor, and texture of the final wine:

• Size and Shape of Vessel:

  • Large: 1000+ liters (called a foudre)

  • Small: 225 liters (called a barrique)

  • Egg-shaped vessels

• Vessel Material:

  • Wood

  • Stainless-steel

  • Concrete

Aging and Maturation

Winemakers can alter flavors and style through aging after fermentation:

• Barrel Aging:

  • Evaporation of excess water.

  • Oxidation causes color change in wine; white wines darken, red wines lighten.

  • Textural changes softening wine.

  • Flavor imparted from barrel varieties:

  • Vanilla

  • Oak

  • Toast

  • Spice (cinnamon, clove, allspice)

  • Coconut

Other Barrel Aging Considerations

• How Old is the Barrel?: New barrels impart the most flavor; older barrels remain neutral after several uses but contribute oxidation effects.

• Financial Considerations: High costs for new oak barrels can affect winemaking choices.

• Size of Barrel: Larger barrels impart less flavor due to lower wine contact surface area.

Effects of Aging

• Length of Aging: Affects flavor complexity, structure, and aging potential of wines.

• Short vs. Long-term Aging: Different effects observed for white and red wines.

Vinification Terms

• Malolactic Fermentation: Tart malic acid converts to softer-tasting lactic acid, imparting creamy textures in whites.

• Carbonic Maceration: Whole berries ferment from the inside under CO2, producing unique aromas and flavors.

• Lees Contact: Leaving white and sparkling wines in contact with fermentation yeast for additional richness and complexity.

Must Adjustments

Must is unfermented grape juice that may require adjustments to create balance:

• Chaptalization: Addition of sugar to must to increase final wine alcohol content.

• Acidification: Addition of tartaric acid to increase acidity for balance.

Preparation for Bottling

• Fining: Used to clarify wine for attractiveness, involve cold stabilization to precipitate tartrate crystals.

• Filtration: Series of filters to extract yeasts and microbes for stability.

• Packaging: Various container options such as bottle, Tetra Pak©, keg, or can.

• Closures: Include cork, screw cap, glass stopper or Vino-Lok©.

• Capsules and Labels: Bottles finished off with identifying labels to enhance attractiveness and increase sales.

Vinification Quiz Questions

1. American oak barrels are characterized by more intense aromas of coconut and vanilla than French oak barrels: a. True, b. False

2. Vinification is defined as: a. Activities and decisions made in the vineyard, b. Dealing with pests, c. Organic farming, d. Activities and decisions occurring in the winery

3. Which does not potentially add flavor to wine? a. Oak aging, b. Malolactic fermentation, c. Lees contact, d. Stainless-steel vinification

4. What process involves fermentation of whole berries? a. Alcoholic fermentation, b. Carbonic maceration, c. Cold stabilization, d. Malolactic fermentation

5. Fermentation converts grape sugars into: 1. 2. 3.

6. Name three aromas and flavors associated with sur lie aging.

7. What wine region uses carbonic maceration?

8. Why is sorting grapes important in vinification?

The Deductive Tasting Method

Learning Points

Learning the Deductive Tasting Method is crucial, allowing students to practice over six tastings during two days, focusing on classic wines from key regions.

Objectives:

• Discuss the importance of a consistent tasting technique.

• Describe necessary components for a successful tasting environment.

• Demonstrate the proper way to hold a wine glass.

• Describe the ideal setting for evaluating wine.

• Demonstrate effective techniques for smelling wine.

• Assess wine properly through tasting.

Why Use This Method?

• It focuses on purposeful tasting, developing olfactory senses and taste memory.

• Helps form valuable taste references.

• Improves palate and ability to describe wines, enhancing service and understanding wine styles and types.

• Aids in connecting world wines with regions and grapes.

• Establishes cause and effect understanding in wine flavor profiles.

Learning the CMS Deductive Tasting Method

• Master vocabulary and format used to describe wine.

• Keep a record of impressions for future reference when revisiting wines tasted in class.

The Five Criteria of Deductive Tasting

1. Sight: Evaluation of what the wine looks like.

2. Nose: Evaluation of what the wine smells like.

3. Palate: Taste assessment of the wine.

4. Initial Conclusion: Narrowing down what the wine might be based on sensory evaluation.

5. Final Conclusion: Drawing a final answer.

Steps in Evaluating the Sight of Wine

• Tilt the glass at 45º; use a white background for clarity.

• Evaluate the wine under the best light.

• Hold the glass by the stem.

Clarity & Visible Sediment

• Assess for clarity and sediment presence to determine clarity and filtration.

Scale of Clarity Includes:

• Clear, Hazy, Turbid.

Concentration of Color

• Evaluate the intensity of the wine's color.

Factors Affecting Color Under Wine Types:

• Age influences: Young whites are light and darken with age; reds lighten in hue.

• Grape variety impacts production of color.

Evaluating the Nose of Wine

Aromatic analysis involves smelling the wine to assess quality and faults.

1. Clean or Faulty: Identify flaws such as TCA, oxidation, volatile acidity, ethyl acetate, and excessive SO2.

2. Intensity of Aromas: Measuring strength; scale: Low, Moderate, High.

3. Age Assessment: Signs of youth, development, and advanced age.

4. Describing Fruit Aromas: Major fruit categories including citrus, stone fruit, and berries.

5. Fruit Character: Condition indicating ripeness or cooking.

6. Non-Fruit Character: Identifying aromas beyond fruit, focusing on complexity.