LECTURE 2

Psychology as a Science

Course Details

  • Date: 9/02
  • Syllabus Contract: Due Friday!
  • Class Survey: An optional survey will be posted; .5 extra credit for all if at least 100 students complete it. This will be used for in-class statistics activity and not outside of class.
  • Class Cancellation: No class on Friday 9/12.

Course Assignments

  • Takeaway Assignments: Due at the end of class. Reminder 2/5.
    • Submission Count: 128 students turned in takeaways last Friday.
    • Name Submission: Ensure names are as they appear on CUNY.
    • Response Requirements: Must write either a question or the absence thereof; lack of any required part (name, ID, one interesting thing, one question) results in loss of points.

Key Questions and Discussion

  • Is Psychology a Science?
    • Must critically analyze both sides: Yes or no? Why?

The Scientific Method

  • Definition: The systematic process for posing and answering questions through careful observations, data collection, and analysis.
    • Steps Involved:
    1. Identify research question and form hypothesis.
    2. Collect data to test hypothesis.
    3. Analyze data.
    4. Interpret results, draw conclusions, and disseminate findings.

Application of the Scientific Method

  • Example Research Question: Does spending more time on TikTok make us happier?
    • Connections to Psychology: Happiness is a psychological state influenced by behavior (time spent on TikTok).
    • Data Collection Issues:
    • Gathering data on time spent using TikTok.
    • Defining and measuring happiness, which is a theoretical construct and not directly observable.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

  • Data Variables:
    • Relationship between time spent on TikTok and reported happiness.
Correlation Example
  • Annual US household spending on pork vs. Lululemon stock price from 2008-2022.
  • Data Points:
    • Annual household spending (e.g., $392 in 2022)
    • Stock price correlation: $295, $198, $101, $4 in respective years with statistical findings.
    • Correlation Data: $r = 0.968, $r^2 = 0.937, $p < 0.01.
    • Interpretation: Increase in pork consumption correlates with demand for casual clothing, exemplifying humorous reasoning in behavior.

Importance of Research

  • Research Value: Validating scientific claims.
    • Characteristics:
    • Empirical and based on observable evidence.
    • Essential for verifying psychological principles.

Theoretical Foundations

  • Theory vs. Hypothesis:
    • Theories: Supported by extensive testing (e.g., gravity, evolution).
    • Hypotheses: Proposed explanations not yet proven (e.g., discredited theories like phrenology and Martian canals).

Critical Thinking in Research

  • Advertising Claims: Skepticism towards claims of 'scientific evidence.'
    • Questions to Consider:
    • Expertise of claimant
    • Potential biases in claims
    • Evidence supporting claims
    • Consensus among researchers.

Reasoning in Scientific Research

  • Deductive Reasoning: Begins with a general premise to reach a specific conclusion.
    • Example: All living things require energy; ducks are living creatures; thus, ducks require energy.
  • Inductive Reasoning: General conclusions drawn from specific observations.
    • Example: Observing fruit growth leads to the assumption that fruit grows on trees.

Scientific Method Framework

  • Stages:
    1. Theory Formation.
    2. Hypothesis Development from theory.
    3. Observational Research Execution.
    4. Study Design to test hypothesis.

Freudian Psychology

  • Components of Personality:
    1. Id: Basic needs and desires.
    2. Ego: Reality management.
    3. Superego: Moral standards.
  • Contemporary Viability: Not widely accepted today; significant for historical development of psychology.

Measurement Tools in Research

  • Key Properties:
    • Reliability: Consistency in measurements.
    • Types:
    • Interrater: Agreement among different observers.
    • Test-retest: Consistency over time with the same individuals.
  • Validity:
    • Types:
    • Internal (correctly measuring concepts).
    • External (generalizability of findings).
  • Requirement: Both reliability and validity are necessary for accurate measurement.

Data Interpretation Framework

  • Stages of Interpretation: Data → Information → Knowledge → Insight → Wisdom.

Research Methodologies

Clinical or Case Studies
  • Focus on individuals under unique psychological circumstances (e.g., Genie Wiley).
    • Provides deep insights but struggles with generalizability.
Naturalistic Observations
  • Behavior observed in natural settings, minimizing observational bias through clear criteria.
Surveys
  • Lists of questions delivered through various means (paper, electronic, verbal).
    • Allows large data collection from samples.
Experimental Research
  • Tests hypotheses regarding causal relationships, requiring:
    • Independent and dependent variables.
    • Control and experimental groups.
    • Ideally, random assignment.
Placebo Influence
  • Use in control groups to eliminate bias related to expectations.
Research Designs for Development
  1. Cross-sectional Studies: Compare different age groups at one time.
  2. Longitudinal Studies: Follow the same group over time.
  3. Sequential Studies: Combine both longitudinal and cross-sectional elements.

Participant Selection in Research

  • Participants: The individuals involved in research.
  • Sample: A subset selected from a population.
    • Random Sampling: Preferred method to ensure representativeness across demographics.

Ethical Considerations in Research

  • Ethics in Psychology: Limitations on experimental design when ethical standards cannot be met (e.g., abuse studies).
  • Institutional Review Board (IRB): Reviews experimental proposals to ensure ethical compliance.
Informing Participants
  • Informed Consent: Participants are informed about the study, including risks, voluntary nature, and confidentiality.
Deception in Research
  • Necessary Deception: Sometimes used to maintain experimental integrity, followed by debriefing post-experiment.
  • Historical Case Example: Tuskegee Syphilis Study, involving unethical practices and misinformation to participants.
Animal Research Ethics
  • Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC): Reviews research proposals involving animals.
    • Use of rodents and birds in psychological research due to ethical concerns in human studies.
    • Minimization of pain or distress for animals is mandatory in research design.