Introduction to Electronics
Page 1: Introduction to Electronics
GGSCMT Electronics affects everyday life
Page 2: What is Electronics?
Electronics is the study of the flow of charge (electrons) through materials and devices.
Key components include:
Semiconductors
Resistors
Inductors
Capacitors
Nanostructures
All electronics applications involve power transmission and information exchange.
Page 3: Electronics in Engineering
A branch of engineering focused on machinery and equipment design for efficient communication.
Common applications:
Mobile devices, TVs, DVDs
Computers and laptops
Home security systems
Intelligence systems
Page 4: Emerging Technologies
Present and emerging technologies include:
Wireless communication
PLCC (Power Line Carrier Communication)
Satellite communication
Internet Communication
Nanotechnology
Embedded systems
Display techniques
Robotics
Radar
Milk fat testing
Remote sensing
Microwave communication
Advanced processing
Page 5: History of Electronics
William Gilbert (1544-1603)
Authored "De Magnete" discussing magnetism and static electricity.
Distinguished between magnetism and static electricity.
Page 6: Leyden Jar
The first capacitor invented by Pieter van Musschenbroek.
Page 7: Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
Writer and scientist who researched electricity and meteorology.
Defined positive and negative charges; made many inventions.
Page 8: Charles Coulomb (1736-1806)
Experimented with mechanical resistance and established Coulomb's Law for electrostatic charges.
Page 9: Luigi Galvani (1737-1798)
Studied electricity's effects on frogs, revealing that electricity affected living animals.
Page 10: Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)
Inventor of the battery, highly interested in electrical experiments of the era.
Page 11: Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851)
Demonstrated electricity's effect on magnetism, leading to the study of electromagnetism.
Discovered aluminum.
Page 12: Andre Ampere (1775-1836)
French mathematician and physicist who invented the solenoid and studied electrical current effects.
Page 13: Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854)
Pioneer in electrical circuits, known for Ohm's Law, which explains the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance.
Page 14: Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Important experimenter in electricity and magnetism, demonstrated electromagnetic induction.
Page 15: James Prescott Joule (1818-1889)
Discovered the Law of Conservation of Energy; the unit of energy, Joule, is named after him.
Page 16: Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
Contributed significantly to the spectroscope development and Kirchhoff's Laws.
Page 17: Sir Charles Wheatstone (1806-1876)
Conducted early work in telegraphy, photography, and electricity.
Developed the concertina (accordion) and the Wheatstone Bridge.
Page 18: James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
Authored "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism," which described Faraday's work and predicted Hertz's findings.
Page 19: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894)
First to demonstrate electromagnetic radiation predicted by Maxwell.
Showed the photoelectric effect.
Page 20: Wilhelm Röntgen (1845-1923)
Discovered X-rays in 1895, quickly adopted by medical professionals.
Max von Laue proved later they were electromagnetic.
Page 21: Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931)
Held 1093 patents including inventions like the phonograph and incandescent light bulb.
Observed the "Edison effect" during electric lamp invention.
Page 22: Edison 1882 Patent Lamp
Featured carbon filament.
Page 23: Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)
Serbian-American engineer who invented AC generators and systems, known for his rivalry with Edison.
Page 24: Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937)
Patented radio telegraphy in 1896, transmitted signals across the Atlantic in 1901.
Won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909.
Page 25: John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945)
A student of Maxwell who worked for Edison and Marconi.
Invented the Fleming Valve, the first electronic rectifier (diode) in 1904.
Page 26: The Fleming Valve
An early version of the electronic diode in circuits.
Page 27: Lee De Forest (1873-1961)
Invented the Audion tube in 1906, the first triode vacuum tube.
In 1912, cascaded tubes for amplification.
Page 28: Lee De Forest's Triode
Significant advancement in electronic amplification.
Page 29: Walter Schottky (1886-1976)
Defined 'shot noise' in thermionic tubes and invented the multiple grid vacuum tube in 1919.
Page 30: Edwin Howard Armstrong (1890-1954)
Invented regenerative feedback and oscillators; developed superheterodyne radio in 1917.
Patented FM radio in 1933.
Page 31: Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906-1971)
At age 14 invented an electronic TV system. Patented it in 1927; RCA litigation concluded in his favor in 1939.
Page 32: William Bradford Shockley (1910-1989)
Along with Brattain and Bardeen, invented the junction transistor, sharing the 1956 Nobel Prize.
Page 33: Walter H. Brattain (1902-1987)
Worked on radar silicon detectors and the junction transistor; also shared the 1956 Nobel Prize.
Page 34: John Bardeen (1908-1991)
Developed theories that led to the junction transistor's invention, sharing the 1956 Nobel Prize.
Page 35: Early History of IC Devices
1940s: Vacuum tubes dominated radios, TVs, telephones; expensive and fragile.
1956 Nobel Prize: Invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) by Shockley, leading to significant stability and cost reductions.
1947: Invention of the point-contact transistor by Brattain and Bardeen.
ENIAC: First digital computer created.
Page 36: Discrete Electronic Circuits
1954: Texas Instruments produced the first commercial silicon transistor.
Components called “discretes” made separately, wired onto circuit boards.
Page 37: The Integrated Circuit (IC)
An IC consists of interconnected components in a single piece of semiconductor material.
The first planar IC demonstrated by Robert Noyce in 1959 at Fairchild Semiconductor.
Jack S. Kilby showed simple IC fabrication in germanium in 1958.
Page 38: Atomic Structure
Atoms are the smallest particle of an element retaining the element's characteristics.
Structural parts:
Electrons
Nucleus with Protons and Neutrons
Page 39: Electron Structure
Characteristics of electrons around the nucleus (electron shell and orbits).
Page 40: Periodic Table
Elements arranged by atomic number, which corresponds to proton and electron count in a neutral atom.
Page 41: Electron Shells and Energy
Electrons exist in orbits at discrete distances from the nucleus, called energy levels.
Page 42: Valence Electrons
Valence shell: Outermost shell with valence electrons, which have higher energy and are loosely bound.
Page 43: Ionization
The process of losing valence electrons, resulting in ions with differing electron counts.
Free electrons escape from valence shells creating holes in the structure.
Page 44: Electron Shell Calculation
Calculation of electrons in a shell using relevant formulas.
Page 45: Material Classification
Classification of materials based on conductivity:
Conductors: Less than four valence electrons
Insulators: More than four valence electrons
Semiconductors: Exactly four valence electrons
Page 46: Atom Core
Core includes nucleus and inner orbits, visualized in carbon atoms.
Page 47: Electrical Classification of Materials
Comparison between Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors based on electron behavior.
Page 48: Energy Levels
The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the higher its energy state.
The energy gap represents the difference between energy levels.
Page 49: Valence and Conduction Bands
Valence Band: Energy level for electrons in the valence shell.
Conduction Band: Energy level required for electrons to leave the valence shell.
Page 50: Bands of Materials
Discussion of energy levels in different materials:
Insulators: Energy gap (Eg) > 5 eV
Semiconductors: Various Eg values (e.g., Ge = 0.67 eV, Si = 1.1 eV).
Page 51: Semiconductor Comparison
Comparison between silicon and copper atoms, reflecting semiconductor vs. conductor properties.
Page 52: Widely Used Semiconductors
Silicon and germanium are the primary single-element semiconductors used in devices.
Page 53: Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding involves shared electrons; forming crystals and lattices via covalent structures.
Page 54: Covalent Bonding in Silicon
Visualization of covalent bonding in silicon atoms.
Page 55: Intrinsic Semiconductors
Definition: Intrinsic semiconductors without impurities.
Page 56: Silicon Crystal
Structure and arrangement of silicon atoms in a crystal.
Page 57: Conduction in Semiconductors
Semiconductors can control current flow based on their properties.
Page 58: Silicon Atom at 0 Kelvin
Energy diagram of unexcited atoms at absolute zero.
Page 59: Silicon Atom at Room Temperature
Energy diagrams showing free electrons in conduction and valence bands with thermal energy effects.
Page 60: Electron-Hole Pair Dynamics
Creation and recombination: for every free electron in the conduction band, there is a corresponding hole in the valence band.
Page 61: Intrinsic Silicon Crystal Dynamics
Continuous creation of electron-hole pairs at room temperature in intrinsic silicon crystals.
Page 62: Temperature Effects on Semiconductors
Increased temperature leads to more free electrons; materials like silicon and germanium show reduced resistance with rising temperature.
Page 63: Electron Current
Applied voltage allows thermally generated free electrons to move, creating electron current.
Page 64: Hole Current
Remaining valence electrons can move to nearby holes, generating hole current.
Page 65: Extrinsic Semiconductors
Divided into N-type and P-type based on doping process.
Page 66: Doping in Semiconductors
Doping: Adding impurities to alter conducting properties; results in extrinsic semiconductors.
Page 67: Types of Impurities
Pentavalent impurity: Donor atoms (5 valence electrons) that increase conduction electrons.
Trivalent impurity: Acceptor atoms that create holes upon doping. Examples include Arsenic (n-type) and Boron (p-type).
Page 68: N-type Semiconductor
Result from adding pentavalent impurities, increasing conduction electrons.
Page 69: N-type Semiconductor Characteristics
Majority carriers: free electrons; minority carriers: holes thermally produced.
Page 70: P-type Semiconductor
Result from adding trivalent impurities, increasing holes in the semiconductor.
Page 71: P-type Semiconductor Characteristics
Majority carriers: holes produced by doping; minority carriers: thermally generated free electrons.
Page 72: Majority and Minority Carriers
N-type: electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority.
P-type: holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority.
Page 73: The Diode
Diode: Conducts current in one direction, formed by doping intrinsic semiconductor with both trivalent and pentavalent materials.
Page 74: Diode Construction
Structure entails a PN junction where p and n materials meet.
Page 75: Depletion Region
Formed when free electrons migrate across the PN junction, creating charge layers.
Page 76: Barrier Potential
The depletion region forms an electric field acting as a barrier to free electrons, known as Barrier Potential or Threshold Voltage.
Page 77: Energy at the PN Junction
Energy levels differ between n and p regions; electrons diffuse and lose energy transferring into holes.
Page 78: Energy at the Depletion Region
Junction equilibrates when depletion region completes with electron diffusion stopping.
Page 79: Biasing Diodes
Understanding the operating conditions of electronic devices involves biasing.
Page 80: Bias in Electronics
DC voltage establishes operating conditions in semiconductor devices.
Page 81: Forward Bias
Condition allowing current flow through the PN junction; positive DC source connected to the p region.
Page 82: Forward Bias Currents
N region: Free electrons are majority carriers.
P region: Holes are majority carriers.
Page 83: Equilibrium in Forward Bias
When forward bias current increases, the depletion region narrows due to more free electrons and holes crossing into it.
Page 84: Forward Bias Current Behavior
Free electrons gain energy, cross the depletion region, and combine with holes, resulting in a voltage drop across the junction.
Page 85: Reverse Bias
Condition that prevents current through the diode; negative terminal connected to p region or bias voltage lower than the barrier potential.
Page 86: Reverse Bias Condition
Positive potential in the n region and negative in the p region widen the depletion region.
Page 87: Reverse Currents
Small reverse current known as saturation current due to minority carriers generated in the thermal process.
Page 88: Surface Leakage Current
Small current occurring due to impurities and imperfections on the crystal, proportional to reverse voltage.
Page 89: Zener Effect
Condition where reverse bias exceeds a threshold, generating strong electric fields dislodging charge carriers.
Page 90: Avalanche Effect
High reverse bias voltage incentivizes carriers to collide and produce additional electron-hole pairs, rapidly increasing current.
Page 91: Forward Bias Diode Current
Computation of current using diode current characteristics considering saturation current and other factors.
Page 92: Diode Structure and Symbol
Identifies the anode and cathode junction, and illustrates diode current direction.
Page 93: Diode Characteristic Curves
Key figures depicting the operation of diodes under forward and reverse bias conditions.
Page 94: Zener Region
Maximum reverse-bias potential before entering the Zener region, also referred to as PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage).
Page 95: Silicon vs. Germanium Diodes
Comparative review of PIV rating, temperature range, and threshold voltages for silicon and germanium diodes.
Page 96: Reverse Characteristics and Specifications
Various specifications and characteristics based on environmental impacts on silicon and germanium diodes.
Page 97: Effects of Temperature on Diodes
Discussion of forward bias current, saturation current, and threshold voltage changes with temperature variations.
Page 98: Temperature Influence on Diode Function
Impact of temperature increments on reverse saturation current and threshold voltage in diode materials.
Page 99: Resistance Levels
Exploring the resistive properties opposing electrical current.
Page 100: Quiescent Point (Q-point)
Steady state of a semiconductor device characterized by stable operating points on the curve.
Page 101: DC or Static Resistance
Illustrates the calculation of static resistance in diode operations.
Page 102: AC or Dynamic Resistance
Influence of small input voltage on instantaneous operating points of diodes.
Page 103: Average AC Resistance
Graphical representations of dynamic resistance based on average current levels across varying voltage inputs.
Page 104: Diode Equivalent Circuit
Representation of diode properties through an equivalent circuit model.
Page 105: Ideal Diode Model
Characteristics of an ideal diode configuration under forward and reverse bias, demonstrating linearity.
Page 106: Equivalent Circuit Termination
Summary of equivalent circuit components providing insights into operational characteristics.
Page 107: Ideal Diode Model Characteristics
Graphical depiction of ideal diode behavior with performance metrics for various bias conditions.
Page 108: Simplified Diode Model
Characterization of simplified models illustrating voltage and current relationships.
Page 109: Piecewise-Linear Model Characteristics
Characteristics that define piecewise-linear behaviors under specific operational conditions.
Page 110: Diode Specification Identity
Document defining and outlining the specifications of a unique diode.
Page 111: Diode Specification Sheet
Detailed characteristics of a diffused silicon diode demonstrating absolute maximum ratings.
Page 112: Parameter Impact Awareness
Emphasizing the importance of understanding diode specifications for appropriate application in electronic circuits.
Page 113: Transition Capacitance
Analysis of capacitance types and their behaviors in forward and reverse bias conditions.
Page 114: Capacitance Levels
Discussion and representation of capacitance during varied conditions affecting diode performance.
Page 115: Reverse Recovery Time
Analysis of the time required for the diode to switch from ON to OFF state, essential for effective operation.
Page 116: Diode Packages Overview
Overview of typical diode packaging and design considerations for electronic components.
Page 117: Diode Package Characteristics
Illustrative representations of various diode package types used in electrical applications.
Page 118: Diode Package Characteristics (Continued)
Diversity in diode packaging highlighting practicality in electronic designs.
Page 119: Diode Testing Approaches
Explanation of methods used to test diode functionality and ensure operational reliability.
Page 120: Using a Curve Tracer
Method for testing diodes leveraging curve tracing technology for evaluating performance.
Page 121: Curve Tracer Implementation
Practical guide on setting up and interpreting readings from a curve tracer for diodes.
Page 122: Using a VOM
Guidance on utilizing a volt-ohm meter to assess a diode's functionality.
Page 123: Testing with a VOM
Operational techniques outlining testing procedures and expected resistance values for diodes.
Page 124: Using DMM for Assessment
Highlighting procedures for utilizing digital multimeters (DMM) effectively in diode testing.
Page 125: DMM Testing Strategy
Steps for using a DMM to assess diode condition under various testing scenarios.
Page 126: DMM Testing Results
Interpretation of DMM outcomes to distinguish between functional and defective diodes.
Page 127: Conclusion
Thanking the audience for their engagement and emphasizing learning excellence.
Engr. Sarah T. Mesiona, Batangas State University, ECE Department.