Psvh 7-8

Chapter 7

• Cognition: How do people think and organize all the information we consume without think about how our brain is working 

• Concepts:categories of linguistic information,images,ideas,or memories.

• Prototype: the best example or representation of a concept 

• Natural Concepts:created naturally through either direct or indirect experience 

• Artificial Concepts: Defined by a specific set of characteristics

• Schemata: allows your brain to work efficiently by filling in gaps of information 

• Role Schema:male assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave 

• Event schema:a set of routine or automatic behaviors.(elevator)

• Language:communication system that involves using word and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another 

• Lexicon:the words of a given language 

• Grammar:the set of rules that are used to convey meaning using the lexicon 

• Phoneme:abais sound unit(ah and bah)

• Morphemes:the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning 

• Semantics:the meaning we derive from morphemes and words

• Syntax:the way words are organized 

• Noam Chomsky:proposed that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined.

• Critical Period:developmental period where a skill should be acquired (learning language)

• Trial and error: continue trying different solutions until the problem is solved

• Algorithm:step-by-step problem-solving formula 

• Heuristic:general problem solving framework

• Working Backwards:beijing solving problems by focusing on the end result 

• Mental Set:persistence in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past 

• Functional Fixedness”inability to perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for.

• Anchoring Bias:tendency to focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving problem 

• Confirmation Bias;tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs.

• Hindsight Bias:leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable even though it wasn't. 

• Representative Bias:tendency to unintentionally stereotype someone or something

• Availability bias:tendency to make a decision based on example,information or recent experience

• Nature perspective:intelligence is inherited from a person's parents 

• Nurture Perspective: intelligence is shaped by a child's developmental environment.

• Range of Reaction:theory that each person responds to the environment a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup 

Chapter 8

• Memory:is a set of processes used to encode,store and retrieve information over different periods of time.

• Encoding:involves the input of information into the memory systems 

• Automatic Processing:encoding of details like time,space,frequency,and the meaning of words.

• Effortful Processing:encoding of details that takes time and effort.

• Semantic Encoding:encoding of words and their meanings 

• Visual Encoding:images in your brain 

• Acoustic Encoding:sounds 

• Self-reference effect;the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance.

• Storage:the creation of a permanent record of information 

• Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory:informations passes through 3 distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory

• Sensory memory:storage of brief sensory events such as sights sounds and tastes 

• Short term memory:a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory information.

• Memory consolidation:transfer of STM to long term memory

• Long-term memory:is the continuous storage of information 

• Explicit memory:memories of facts and events we can consciously remember and recall/declare 

• Semantic:knowledge about words,concepts,and language 

• Episodic memory:information about events we have personally experienced

• Implicit Memory:memories that are not part of our consciousness 

• Procedural:stores information about how to do things 

• Priming:stimulus exposure affects responses to later stimulus 

• Retrieval:the act of getting information out of memory storage and back into consciousness 

• Recall:being able to access info without cues 

• Recognition:being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again 

• Recall:learning info that you previously learned 

• Karl Lashley and Engrams:the group of neurons that serve as the physical representation of memory 

• Equipotentiality hypothesis:if the part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged another part of the same area can take over that memory function 

• Amygdala:involved in fear and fear memories,because memory storage is influenced by stress hormones 

• Hippocampus:associated with explicit memory,recognition memory and spatial memory 

• Cerebellum:plays a role in processing procedural memories such as how to play the piano and classical conditioning.

• Prefrontal Cortex:involved in remembering semantic tasks

• Arousal Theory:strong emotions trigger the information of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences from weaker memories

• Flashbulb Memory: a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations 

• False Memories:large memory errors in which events are recalled that never took place 

• Amnesia:the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease physical trauma or psychological trauma 

• Anterograde amnesia:inability to remember new information after point of trauma 

• Retrograde amnesia:loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma 

• Construction:formation of new memories 

• Reconstruction:process of bring up old memories 

• Suggestibility: describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the concentration of false memories.

• Elizabeth Loftus:studied false memories

• Misinformation Effect paradigm:after exposure to incorrect information,a person may misremember the original event.

• False Memory syndrome:recall of false autobiographical memories

• Repressed Memories:it is possible to completely repress traumatic childhood memories such as sexual abuse 

• Transience:accessibility of memory decreases over time

• Absentmindedness:forgetting caused lapses in attention 

• Blocking:accessibility of information is temporarily blocked 

• Misattribution:source of memory is confused 

• Persistence:inability to forget underable memories 

• Ebbinhaus:after learning information 20 minutes after the information is gone and after 24 75% of it will be gone

• Stereotypical bias:involves racial and gender bias 

• Egocentric bias:involves enhancing our memories

• Rehearsal:conscious repetition of information to be remembered