Exhaustive IB Psychology SAQ Review Study Guide

SAQ Review Activity Overview

• Activity Goals:     - The purpose of this activity is to review content for Short Answer Questions (SAQs) in the IB Psychology curriculum.
• Whiteboard Game Instructions:     - Participants are divided into pods, each with a whiteboard.     - For each study name displayed on a slide, pods must list as many relevant content area examples as possible where that specific study would fit for a potential SAQ.

Biological Approach: Neuroplasticity and Specific Research

• Neuroplasticity Defined: The brain’s inherent ability to adapt and change its neural structure over time.
• Long-Term Potentiation: A process where the repetition of tasks leads to dendritic branching and arborization, which increases neural density.
• Lack of Potentiation: Occurs when a behavior is discontinued, leading to neural pruning (the elimination of extra, unneeded neurons and synaptic connections).
• Draganski (2004) Study:     - Aim: To demonstrate how repeated action leads to the growth of neural networks and how stopping such actions creates neural pruning.     - Design: A pretest/posttest design was utilized to observe differences in neural density over time.     - Participants: Individuals with no previous knowledge of juggling.     - Procedure: Participants were taught to juggle. Each received an MRI scan at the start to establish a base rate for grey matter and brain structure. A second scan was taken after learning, and a final scan was taken after a period of non-practice.     - Results:         - Scans showed a larger amount of grey matter in bilateral mid-temporal areas (associated with visual memory) in the juggling group compared to the non-juggling control group.         - After $3$ months of no juggling, many participants could no longer complete the routine, and grey matter in those specific brain areas decreased.
• Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond (1972):     - Relevant SAQ Topics: Research methods in the biological approach, neuroplasticity, animal models to understand human behavior (Paper 1 ERQ HL), and ethical considerations in animal research.     - Aim: To investigate if changing the level of stimuli in the environment results in physical changes in the brain.     - Participants: Rats.     - Key Detail: Focused on the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex.

Biological Approach: Pheromones and Evolutionary Explanations

• Pheromones Defined: Chemicals produced and released into the environment by an animal that affect the behavior of others of the same species.
• Biological Basis: Different proteins made by Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) genes release different pheromones, which are reflected in body odors.
• Wedekind (1995) – The "Smelly T-Shirt" Study:     - Relevant SAQ Topics: Research methods in the biological approach, evolutionary explanations of behavior, pheromones, and biological origins of human relationships (Paper 2).     - Aim: To determine whether one’s MHC would affect mate choice.     - Overview of MHC: The Major Histocompatibility Complex is a group of genes essential to the immune system.     - Procedure: Participants were asked to rate the smell of t-shirts worn by others for intensity and pleasantness/sexiness on a scale of $1$ to $10$.     - Results: Women preferred the scents of T-shirts worn by men whose MHC genes were different from their own.     - Additional Finding: The odors of MHC-dissimilar men reminded the women of their actual or former mates more often than the odors of MHC-similar men.     - Conclusions/Implications: This suggests that these preferences are not just lab-based but reflective of real-world mate selection behavior.

Biological Approach: Genes and Behavior

• Caspi et al. (2003):     - Aim: To see if the $5-HTT$ gene affects how stressful life events lead to depression.     - Study Type: Longitudinal study and correlational study.     - Sampling Method: Convenience sampling.     - Participants: $1,037$ people from New Zealand.     - Procedure: Measured stressful life events over the course of $5$ years; diagnosed depression using interviews; compared levels of stress and depression across different gene types.     - Results: All participant groups experienced similar levels of stress. However, people with the short allele ($s/s$ or $s/l$) exhibited more symptoms of depression following stress. People with the long allele ($l/l$) were significantly less affected.     - Conclusion: The gene does not directly cause depression; rather, it affects sensitivity to stress (gene $\times$ environment interaction).
• Diathesis-Stress Model: A framework suggesting that human behavior is affected by a combination of genetics (diathesis) and social/environmental factors (stress).
• Genetic Expression Concepts:     - Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles: If offspring receive one or more dominant alleles, the dominant form of the gene is expressed. If offspring receive two recessive alleles, the recessive form is expressed.

Neurotransmitters, Agonists, and Antagonists

• Agonists: Substances that increase neurotransmitter activity.     - Example Study: Healy (2002).
• Antagonists: Substances that block neurotransmitter activity.     - Antonova (2011):         - Topic: Neurotransmitters and their effect on behavior (specifically acetylcholine).         - Aim: Investigate the role of acetylcholine in the creation of spatial memory.         - Procedure: The "Arena task" involved participants playing a complex virtual reality game while under an fMRI scan. They were given Scopolamine to block acetylcholine receptor sites.         - Note: Cognitive processes are accepted by the IB as a form of behavior.     - Kindt et al. (2009):         - Focus: Propranolol (a beta-blocker used for high blood pressure and anxiety).

Cognitive Approach: Models of Memory

• The Working Memory Model (WMM):     - Founders: Baddeley and Hitch.     - Components:         - Central Executive: Determines what information is processed by sub-systems.         - Phonological Loop: Responsible for processing auditory information. Includes the Articulatory Loop and the Acoustic Store.         - Visuo-Spatial Scratchpad (Sketchpad): Responsible for processing visual and spatial information.         - Episodic Buffer: Acts as a temporary storage system that integrates information from the other components.     - Theory Characteristics: Describes short-term memory as an active, multi-component system and explains the human ability to multitask.
• Landry & Bartling (2011):     - Aim: To investigate if articulatory suppression influences the serial recall of a written list of letters.     - Procedure: The experimental group performed a task of articulatory suppression (repeating the numbers "one, two") while attempting to memorize letters in order; the control group focused only on the letters.     - Results: Mean accuracy for the control group was $76\%$; mean accuracy for the experimental group was $45\%$.     - Findings: Adding words while memorizing letters overloads the phonological loop. Articulatory suppression occupies the phonological loop, preventing the rehearsal and processing of auditory information.     - Implications: Multitasking during important tasks (e.g., listening to music while studying) can hinder cognitive performance.

Cognitive Approach: Schema Theory

• Schema Defined: Mental structures of existing knowledge that help humans organize and process new information.
• Cognitive Processes in Schema:     - Accommodation: Changing an existing schema when new, conflicting information is presented.     - Assimilation: Changing or interpreting new information to fit within an existing schema.
• Bransford & Johnson (1972):     - Aim: To determine if schema activation improves understanding and recall.     - Procedure: Three groups were given a passage. Group 1 received context before hearing the story; Group 2 received context after; Group 3 received no context. Participants rated comprehension on a scale of $1$ to $7$ and recalled as many details as possible.     - The Passage (The Laundry Task): "The procedure is quite simple. First, you arrange things into different groups depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile may be sufficient, depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any particular endeavor. It is better to do too few things at once than too many. This may not seem important in the short run, but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. The manipulation of the appropriate mechanisms should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on it here. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another fact of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell."     - Findings: The group told the topic ("Doing Laundry") before listening had significantly better recall. Activating the schema with the topic ahead of time improved recall and comprehension.

Cognitive Approach: Thinking and Decision-Making

• Dual Process Model:     - System 1: Quick thinking, automatic, relies on past experience and mental shortcuts (heuristics).     - System 2: Slow, rational, logical, and reasonable.
• Tversky and Kahneman (1974):     - Aim: To test the influence of anchoring bias on decision-making.     - Method: Lab experiment.     - Procedure: Participants had $5$ seconds to estimate the product of a series of numbers. Group 1 (Low Anchor) saw $1 \times 2 \times 3 \times 4 \times 5 \times 6 \times 7 \times 8$. Group 2 (High Anchor) saw $8 \times 7 \times 6 \times 5 \times 4 \times 3 \times 2 \times 1$.     - Results: Groups given the higher anchor estimated a significantly higher product than those given the low anchor.     - Implications: When forced into System 1 thinking (fast scenarios), the anchoring bias—where the first mental stimulus becomes the primary determinant of an answer—has a significant effect.
• Strack & Mussweiler (1997):     - Topics: Biases in thinking and decision making, anchoring effect, priming, and heuristics.

Sociocultural Approach: Stereotypes and Group Behavior

• Key Definitions:     - Social Categorization: Choosing groups to belong to based on one's own traits.     - Stereotype: Information given indirectly from others and social norms; prone to confirmation bias.     - Stereotype Threat: The fear of conforming to the negative stereotypes associated with one's group.     - Stereotype Lift: Performance enhancement by members of a non-stereotyped group when comparing themselves to a negatively stereotyped group.     - Prejudice: Making a judgment about someone with little information; regarded as an attitude.     - Discrimination: The behavioral expression of prejudice.
• Hamilton and Gifford (1976):     - Aim: To investigate how illusory correlations form, specifically if people overestimate the relationship between group size (majority vs. minority) and negative behavior due to distinctive information.     - Procedure: Participants viewed positive and negative statements about two groups, then rated the groups and recalled which group was responsible for which statement.     - Results: Participants associated the smaller (minority) group with more negative traits despite the proportions of negative to positive traits being equal across both groups. This bias disappeared if the participants were not told which group was smaller.     - Conclusion: Distinctive information (minority status + negative behavior) is more memorable, leading to stereotypes via the availability heuristic.

Sociocultural Approach: Cultural Dimensions and Cognition

• Cultural Dimensions Defined: Values within a culture that influence behavior and cognition.
• Cultural Norms: The unique set of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors specific to a particular culture.
• Individualism vs. Collectivism:     - Individualism: Focus on the self, a strong sense of "I," and less focus on the group.     - Collectivism: Tight ties between members of strong in-groups, prioritizing a "we" mentality.
• Berry (1967):     - Aim: To measure the level of conformity in individualistic and collectivist societies using a modification of the Asch line test (the Asch Paradigm).     - Samples:         - Temne of Sierra Leone: Based on rice farming; collectivist culture.         - Inuit of Baffin Island, Canada: Survival through hunting and fishing; individualist culture.         - Scots (Urban and Rural): Served as the control group.     - Procedure: Participants matched a test line to a set of lines. In trials $4$-$6$, the researcher falsely stated that most people from the participant's culture picked a specific (incorrect) line.     - Measurement: The Dependent Variable (DV) was the number of lines away from the correct line the participant chose (score range: $0$ to $15$).     - Results: The Temne (collectivist) had a much higher rate of conformity. The Inuits had a lower rate of conformity than the Scots.     - Implications: Cultural values significantly impact individual cognition and social behavior.

Sociocultural Approach: Acculturation

• Lueck & Wilson (2010):     - Topics: Acculturation and Assimilation.     - Aim: Investigate variables that predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans.

Cognitive and Biological Connections: Emotion and Memory

• McGaugh & Cahill (1995):     - Topics: The effect of emotion on cognitive processes, specifically flashbulb memories.     - Key Detail: Investigated the amygdala's influence on memory encoding.

Twin and Kinship Studies

• Terminology Note: While the term "kinship studies" is common on exams, it is technically incorrect; the proper terms are family or pedigree studies.
• Weissman et al. (2005):     - Aim: To study the potential genetic nature of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD).     - Design: Longitudinal family study spanning $20$ years.     - Participants: $161$ grandchildren, their parents, and grandparents. Families were categorized as high or low risk for depression.     - Procedure: The original sample of parents and children were interviewed $4$ times.     - Results: High rates of psychiatric disorders were found in grandchildren who had two previous generations of major depression.     - Application: Relevant for Paper 2 regarding the etiology of disorders.
• Bouchard (1990) – Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart:     - Study Type: Correlational study.     - Aim: To investigate the extent to which genetic factors influence intelligence.     - Participants: Separated twins raised in different environments; average age was $41$.     - Data Collection: Three different IQ tests and the Moos Family Environment Scale (to compare childhood environments).     - Results:         - No significant difference between MZA (reared apart) and MZT (reared together) twins regarding personality measures (temperament, hobbies, interests, career pursuits, social attitudes).         - Approximately $70\%$ of differences between IQs in twins is attributed to genetic variation (heritability).         - Approximately $30\%$ of the difference is caused by environmental factors.

Practice SAQ Prompts for Review

1. With reference to one study, explain neuroplasticity.
2. With reference to one study, explain the effects of pheromones on human behavior.
3. With reference to one study, explain genes and their effect on behavior.
4. Explain one study on schema theory.
5. Explain one model of memory with reference to research.
6. Explain one study related to thinking and decision-making.
7. Explain the effects of stereotypes on behavior.
8. Explain one study related to cultural dimensions.
9. Explain one study on cultural influences on cognition.