PET issues in research

key terminology:

primary research = conducted by the sociologists first-hand.

secondary research = research that’s already been conducted by someone else in order to use it for their own project.

Quantitive data = data that takes a statistical or numerical form e.g. percentages and ratios.

Qualitative data = data that takes a written prosaic form e.g. a written report or analysis.  

ethnographic research = a qualitative method for understanding a specific culture or community by immersing the researcher in their natural environment to observe behaviours, interactions, and experiences firsthand.

gatekeepers = those with the power to allow or deny access to a group of people or to an organisation.

operationalisation = the problem of agreeing working definitions of what is being studied.

pilot study = a small-scale trial of the research carried out in order to identify problems.

Participants = the broad term for anyone being used in research.

Respondents = this is the term used for people that respond to and complete a questionnaire.

Interviewees = this is the term for those interviewed in either a structured or unstructured interview.

post-hoc consent = when the researcher asks for consent after the process has been completed

Hypothesis = an educated guess - If you start off with an idea of what is going on then your research will be more effective and productive

variable = anything that changes/goes up and down

covert research = undercover in order to capture authentic behaviour - then ask for post-hoc consent - practically risky as they may not give consent

confidentiality = information is protected, not shown to anyone

Verstehen: the German term used to describe the personal empathetic understanding that interpretivist try to achieve with research participants

Primary data:

purposes:

  • to obtain a first-hand ‘picture’ of a group or society

  • to test a hypothesis

methods:

  • social surveys

  • participant observation

  • experiments

advantage: sociologists may be able to gather precisely the information they need to test their hypothesis.

disadvantage: time consuming and costly, working with actual human beings

secondary data:

sources:

  • official statistics - produced by government or charities, businesses, churches etc

  • documents - letters, emails, diaries, photographs etc

advantage: quick and cheap way of doing research

disadvantage: may not provide the exact information that sociologists need as those who produce it may not be interested in the same questions as them.

PET:

Practical issues

Ethical issues

Theoretical issues

practical issues:

  • time and money - pay for staff, space and facilities (The government is the biggest funder of sociological research)

  • training and safety - if going to dangerous places

  • access and gatekeepers

  • requirements of funding

  • personal skills and characteristics of the sociologist

  • subject matter

  • research opportunity - a research opportunity may arise spontaneously so methods such as surveys aren’t possible.

  • sampling - must be representative (reflection of the group your studying)

Ethical issues:

  • informed consent

  • confidentiality and privacy BUT sometimes there are more important ethical concerns that means they cant keep certain information confidential

  • harm to research participants

  • vulnerable groups such as children, elderly, people with mental issues - parent or someone else need to give consent

  • covert research - when the researcher’s identity and research purpose are hidden from those being studied. - some sociologists believe this can be justified in some circumstances such as gaining access to secretive, dangerous or powerful groups.

  • choice of topic could be an ethical issue

  • secondary victimisation

  • wider societal impact - may further stigmatise a group, expose sensitive issues and cause unintended consequences - could effect delicate relationships if the wrong words are used

Theoretical issues: how good the research is

  • Validity (Qualitative) - the extent that the research has produced a true, genuine and in-depth image of what the subject matter is really like. + Must tell you why otherwise doesn’t count as valid data - what questions are valid. + understanding what the experience is actually like (verstehen) + covert research is more valid as participants would behave more authentically. however covert observation may also restrict depth as you cannot ask many questions without jeopardising your cover.

  • Reliability (Quantitative) - Research that is standardised so that when replicated precisely and when repeated, the outcome is the same. - must do something that is measurable and reliable

You cannot achieve both validity and reliability in research.

  • Representativeness - a sample that reflects a typical cross-section of the group being studied; the data is generalisable to wider society. - must reflect the different proportions (age, gender, ethnicity, social class) - stratified sampling or quota sampling - only if the sample is representative then the data can be generalised

  • Objectivity - the extent that research is conducted and collated on an unbiased, impartial and value-free (your politics, views and beliefs) basis - research conducted and data processed without prejudice or subjectivity. - hypothesis based research cannot be objective due to pre-conceived idea - even the way questions are worded could be biases, pushing the participants in a specific direction.

sampling:

problems:

  • must be representative (reflection of the group your studying)

  • may be denied access

with sample frame: (probability) - cant get anonymity

Random sampling = names are selected completely at random from a sample frame 

Systematic or quasi random sampling = every nth name (every fifth or every tenth etc.) is selected from a sample frame 

Stratified sampling = the sample frame is split up into groups (e.g. gender, ethnicity, age, locality etc.) the correct proportions of each group are then randomly selected 

without sample frame: (non-probability)

Snowball sampling = identifying an individual that is usually inaccessible. Via that first individual, contact another and then another etc. 

Opportunity sampling – simply picking out members of the public at any opportunity 

Quota sampling = picking out members of the public to fill proportionally sized quotas by e.g. gender, ethnicity, age, locality etc. 

Cluster sampling = choosing members of the public by geographic areas e.g. postcodes 

Qualitative is much more time consuming and harder to process than quantitative

Positivist versus Interpretivist :

positivist:

  • the scientific approach to research

  • takes the view that researching society takes the same form as researching medicine, physics or chemistry

  • starts with hypothesis

  • usually primary methods that produce quantitive data e.g. experiments, questionnaires and structured interviews

interpretivist:

  • non-scientific approach to research

  • takes the view that humans cannot be studied in the same way as elements, particles and chemicals as humans are intelligent, conscious life forms with self and social awareness

  • a human being’s behaviour is determined by the subjective meaning it creates.

  • hypothesises are usually rejected - instead ground theories are used which means they go into research without any other pre-conceived ideas

  • primary qualitative data e.g observation, participant observation (ethnographic)