Unit 9: Globalization and Its Discontents (1900-Present)

Advances in Technology and Exchange since 1900

  • Conceptual Overview of Globalization: Joseph Krutch (1893-1970) observed that technology enabled large populations, which then made technology indispensable. Since 1900, globalization and telecommunications made the world feel smaller.

  • Communication Technologies:     * Radio: Emerging in the early 1900s, it broadcast news, music, and cultural events.     * Television: Later in the century, advertisements encouraged connectivity (e.g., "reach out and touch someone").     * Internet: Developed for the U.S. Defense Department during the Cold War; became a public tool by the late 1990s.     * Mobile and Social Media: By the 1990s, cellphones, Twitter, and Facebook decentralized information creation. These tools fueled movements like the Arab Spring in the 2010s and exposed police actions and racial profiling in the U.S.

  • Transportation and Energy:     * Shipping Containers: Large standard-sized units transportable by truck, train, or ship.     * Air Travel: About 22 million people fly daily.     * Energy Sources: Shift from coal (half of glocal energy in 1900) to petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas. Nuclear power was developed following research on the atomic bomb in the 1930s and 1940s.

  • The Green Revolution:     * Scientific Breakthroughs: Mid-20th century development of high-yield, disease-resistant varieties of wheat, rice, and grains through crossbreeding and later genetic engineering (changing cell characteristics).     * Agricultural Techniques: Increased use of irrigation, fertilizers, and pesticides. In Brazil and other regions, forests were cleared for grain production.     * Socio-Economic Impacts: Small farmers often could not afford specialized chemicals, leading to land consolidation by large landowners. Mechanization reduced farm labor jobs.     * Case Study (China): According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China (2009), total grain production in China rose to approximately 399399 million tons by the early 21st century after starting significantly lower in 1945.     * Environmental Concerns: Heavy chemical use damaged soil; genetic modification raised fears of declining pollinator populations (e.g., bees) and the loss of heritage seed varieties.

  • Medical Innovations:     * Antibiotics: Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928, a fungus-produced substance that kills bacteria. It was first used to treat humans in 1941, significantly reducing deaths from infected wounds.     * Antibiotic Resistance: Fleming warned that overuse could lead to the evolution of untreatable resistant strains.     * Birth Control: Gregory Pincus developed a reliable birth control pill in the early 1950s; approved by the U.S. in 1960. By 2018, over 300300 million women used modern contraception. This reduced fertility rates and reshaped gender roles.     * Vaccines: While existing since 1796, mass distribution after 1900 led to the eradication of smallpox by the 1980s. Vaccines prevent measles, polio, mumps, tetanus, diphtheria, and whooping cough. A malaria vaccine entered trials by 2019.

Disease and Environmental Limitations

  • Environmental Impact on Health: Environmental factors, poverty, and increased longevity have shifted disease patterns.

  • Diseases of Poverty:     * Malaria: Kills over 600,000600,000 annually; primarily young African children. Prevention includes insecticide-treated mosquito nets. Algeria and Argentina were certified malaria-free in 2019.     * Tuberculosis (TB): Airborne infection. Cures (antibiotics/rest) became available after 1946, though antibiotic-resistant strains have recently emerged in crowded environments like prisons.     * Cholera: Spread via contaminated water; causes 95,00095,000 deaths per year. Prevention involves boiling or chlorinating water.

  • Successes in Global Health:     * Smallpox Eradication: A global WHO campaign eradicated the disease by 1979.     * Polio: Once infected 100,000100,000 people annually. Jonas Salk (injectable vaccine, 1955) and Albert Sabin (oral vaccine, 1961) led to a global campaign started in 1988 that eliminated polio in most countries except conflict zones like Pakistan and Afghanistan.

  • Emerging Epidemics and Social Disruption:     * 1918 Flu Pandemic: Infected one-fifth of the global population; killed 2020 million people. U.S. longevity fell by 1010 years.     * HIV/AIDS: Between 1981 and 2014, killed over 2525 million. Early victims faced funding shortages due to social stigma. Brazil became a model in 1996 by providing free antiretroviral drugs.     * Ebola: Discovered in Congo in 1976; massive outbreak in West Africa in 2014. Coordinated WHO action contained the spread.

  • Diseases Associated with Longevity:     * Heart Disease: Christiaan Barnard performed the first heart transplant in 1967. Robert Jarvik designed the artificial heart.     * Alzheimer’s Disease: A form of dementia resulting in memory loss and eventual death as it undermines bodily functions.

Technology and the Global Environment since 1900

  • Causes of Environmental Change:     * Population Growth: World population rose from 1.6imes1091.6 imes 10^9 (1900) to 6.12imes1096.12 imes 10^9 (2000).     * Urbanization: By 2025, an estimated 5.1imes1095.1 imes 10^9 people will live in cities.     * Industrialization: Increased demand for resource-intensive products (e.g., cars) in developing nations.

  • Specific Environmental Problems:     * Deforestation: Cutting trees for agriculture.     * Desertification: Removal of vegetation in arid lands.     * Water Scarcity: 3131 countries face water scarcity; over 10910^9 people lack clean drinking water. Reducing water collection time by 1515 minutes in Ghana increased female school attendance by 8%8\% to 12%12\%.     * Atmospheric Changes: Emission of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) traps solar heat.

  • Responses and Renewables:     * Fossil Fuels: Petroleum extraction began in the mid-1800s; estimates suggest remaining supplies could be depleted in 3030 to 4040 years.     * Renewable Energy: Wind, solar, tidal, and geothermal power account for approximately 7%7\% of global energy as of late 2010s.     * Environmental Awareness: The "Club of Rome" (founded 1968) raised concerns about resource limits. The Green Belt Movement in Kenya, founded by Wangari Maathai, has planted over 5151 million trees.

  • Global Climate Governance:     * Kyoto Protocol (1997): First major agreement; U.S. did not ratify.     * Paris Agreement (2015): Signed by 195 countries; President Trump announced U.S. withdrawal in 2017.     * Activism: Greta Thunberg (Sweden) led a 2018 strike with 1.61.6 million participants. Extinction Rebellion (2018) used civil disobedience in London.

  • The Anthropocene: Scientists in 2019 voted to designate the current era as the "Anthropocene" (New Man), replacing the Holocene, highlighting human influence on the planet.

Economics in the Global Age

  • Economic Liberalization: Post-Cold War shift toward free-market policies advocated by Ronald Reagan (U.S.) and Margaret Thatcher (UK).

  • National Case Studies:     * Chile: Augusto Pinochet (1974-1990) utilized the "Chicago Boys" (students of Milton Friedman) to privatize businesses and curb inflation through repression and free-market reforms.     * China: Deng Xiaoping (1981) introduced "Special Economic Zones" and replaced communes with leased plots. Foreign investment was attracted by low wages and lax environmental laws. Political protest culminated in the 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre.

  • Shifting Economic Models:     * Knowledge Economy: Focus on information and innovation. Finland transitioned from an agrarian economy to a tech leader in mobile phones via the Science and Technology Policy Council.     * Japan: Post-WWII mercantilist policies (high tariffs on imports, government-corporate coordination) made it a manufacturing hub before diversifying into a knowledge economy.     * Asian Tigers: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan followed the Japanese model of high exports and business-government partnerships.

  • Global Manufacturing: Clothing production shifted to Vietnam and Bangladesh (where clothing is 80%80\% of exports). In Mexico, NAFTA (1994) led to thousands of maquiladoras utilizing low-wage labor.

  • Multinational Corporations:     * Examples: Microsoft, Google, Nestl (criticized for child labor and water privatization), and Mahindra & Mahindra (recognized for social responsibility).     * Organizations like ASEAN, Mercosur, GATT (which lowered average tariffs from 40%40\% to below 5%5\%), and the WTO (established 1995) governed trade.

Calls for Reform and Globalized Culture

  • Universal Rights: The UN adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. UNICEF (1946) provided post-war food aid.

  • Equality Movements:     * Global Feminism: 1975 UN World Conference on Women (Mexico City); 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).     * Negritude Movement: Primarily in French West Africa; rejected colonial authority.     * Liberation Theology: Combined socialism and Catholicism in Latin America; supported by Pope Francis.

  • Racial Equality:     * U.S. Legislation: 1965 Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act.     * South Africa: Apartheid (established 1948) enforced segregation. Nelson Mandela (ANC leader) was imprisoned for life in 1964. Global pressure led to F.W. de Klerk releasing him in 1990. Mandela became president in 1994. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) helped unify the country.

  • Caste Reform: India established the caste reservation system to provide opportunities for formerly underprivileged castes.

  • Environmental Reform: Greenpeace (1971) and Earth Day (April 22, started 1970) focused on conservation and sustainability.

  • Globalized Popular Culture:     * Arts: Modernism (experimentation), Cubism (Picasso), Stream-of-consciousness (James Joyce).     * Music/Media: Harlem Renaissance (Jazz), Bollywood (India), Anime (e.g., Akira, Pokemon), Reggae (Bob Marley), and K-Pop.     * Americanization: Influence of U.S. consumer culture, sometimes viewed as a "throwaway culture."     * Social Media: Tools like WeChat and Weibo (China) or Facebook and Twitter changed global communication but are subject to government censorship.     * Sports: 1896 modern Olympic Games; 2016 Olympics seen by 3.6imes1093.6 imes 10^9 people. Increasing participation of women in sports (e.g., Hajar Abulfazi wearing hijab).

Resistance to Globalization and Global Institutions

  • Arguments Against Globalization:     * Labor Issues: Cocoa industry utilization of over 22 million child laborers; pressure in Amazon warehouses; 2013 Rana Plaza factory collapse (over 1,0001,000 deaths).     * Sovereignty: Brexit (2016) where 52%52\% of British voters elected to leave the EU to regain national control over governance and immigration.

  • Activists’ Demands: Emphasis on Fair Trade (reasonable payment for providers), sustainable development, and debt relief for poor nations.

  • Institutional Structure of the United Nations (UN):     * General Assembly: All members represented.     * Security Council: Five permanent members (U.S., France, GB, Russia, China) with veto power.     * Secretariat: Administrative arm led by a secretary-general.     * International Court of Justice: Settles legal disputes between states.     * Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Largest UN body; manages humanitarian and cultural activities.

  • UN Peacekeeping: First mission in 1948 (Palestine). Peacekeeper numbers rose from 30,00030,000 (2000) to 102,000102,000 (2019). Successes in Namibia and Mozambique; failures in Rwanda and Somalia.

  • Sub-Agencies: World Food Program (WFP) fed over 1.4imes1091.4 imes 10^9 people; UNESCO protects World Heritage Sites; WHO manages health crises; Human Rights Watch (HRW) monitors abuses.