Chapter 11-- The Peculiar Institution
The Old South
Peculiar institution: slavery of the South
The Mason-Dixon Line became the dividing line between slavery and freedom
Boundary dispute between PA & MD
Institution expanded westward
Number of slaves and the economic & political importance of slavery continued to grow
⅓ of population in the South
Cotton Is King
Old South was the largest and most powerful slave society
Strength rested on a virtual monopoly of cotton
Cotton was very essential to international trading
Factories centered around cotton for manufacture clothing
Cotton sales earned money from abroad
Allowed the US to pay for imported manufactured goods
1860: the economic investments represented by the slave population exceeded the value of the nation’s factories, railroads, & banks combined
The Second Middle Passage
Occurred between 1820 and 1860
Massive trade of slaves from the upper South (VA & Chesapeake) to the lower South (the Gulf States)
The main commercial districts of southern cities contained the offices of slave traders
Slavery and the Nation
Slavery was essential to American lives, so the Constitution required the free states who ended slavery to return fugitives
Slavery helped to determine where Americans lived, how they worked, and under what conditions they could exercise their freedoms of speech, assembly, and the press
Northern merchants & manufacturers participated in the slave economy
Money earned in the cotton trade helped to finance industrial development and internal improvement within the north
The Southern Economy
Slaves & slave-owners in the eight Upper South states made up a smaller percentage of the total population than in the seven Deep South state
Upper south had major centers of industry
Baltimore, Richmond, & St. Louis
Upper South’s economy was more diversified than Deep South
Secession Crisis of 1860-1610: Deep South were the first to leave the union
Slavery in the South limited the growth of industry, discouraging immigrant migration, and inhibiting, technological progress
Southern cities served mainly as centers for gathering & shipping cotton
Southern banks existed to help finance the plantations
loaned money for the purchase of land & slaves, not manufacturing development
New Orleans showed slavery & economic growth could go hand in hand
World’s leading exporter of slave-grown crops
Attracted large numbers of European immigrants
Diverse culture → reflected city’s distinctive music, dance, religion, and cuisine
Profits produced by slavery for the South and the nation as a whole formed a powerful obstacle to abolition
Senator James Henry Hammon “Cotton is king”
South’s shorthand economic and political power
Plain Folk of the South
¾ white southern families owned no slaves
Most small white farmers lived outside the plantation unsuitable for cotton production so they worked the land using family labor
Economic self-sufficiency from the Market Revolution
Illiterate due to the South’s lack of systems for free public education
No provided market for manufactured goods
Many poor white people in the South supported wealthy plantation owners because of racism, kinship ties, democratic political culture, regional loyalty
Small farmers manned the slave patrols
Most small farmers believed their economic and personal freedom rested on slavery
The Planter Class
Majority of slaveholding families owned 5> slaves
Planter’s values/aspirations dominated southern life → rules & customs set tone for society
Ownership of slaves provided
Wealth: controlled the most fertile lands, achieved highest incomes, owned slaves
Status: connected w/ wealth & influence
Influence: dominated state and local offices & leadership of both political parties
Poor white southerners found it harder to become slave-owners after the price for slaves working in the field rose in 1860
Slave owners kept keen on world prices for their products & invested in enterprises (railroads and canals)
Plantation mistresses care for sick slaves, directed the domestic servants, and supervised plantations when husbands were away
Many rich planters lived lavish lifestyles (vacations & entertainment)
Settled society in Deep South constructed elegant mansions that resembled Greek Revival style of architecture
The Paternalist Ethos
Planter’s values glorified a hierarchical agrarian society
Paternalism: men had the responsibility of children, women, and slaves; slaves were deprived of liberty for their own good
Paternalism justified and masked the brutality of slavery
Some slave owners like Charles C. Jones tried to reform the system
Promote religious instructions of slaves
improve slave housing, diet, and medical care
Discourage severe punishments
The Code of Honor
Pro-Slavery arguments accounted for white supremacy through racism
Some other pro-slavery arguments
Bible said servants should obey masters
Essential to human progress via the Greek and Romans
Without slavery, planters would be unable to cultivate the arts, sciences, and other civilized pursuits
Pro-slavery arguments accounted for economic autonomy
Institution guaranteed equality for whites, regardless of economic status & slaves owned, by preventing them from the doomed life of unskilled labor
Abolition in the Americas
Emancipation of slavery in Latin America, Britain, and the Northern part of America
“Laws of free womb” in L.A & Americas
British had immediate emancipation in 1838
Controversy since slavery produced crops for world market
Abolitionist said British’s emancipation rose standard of living of freed slaves, the spread of education among them, and other improvements
Slavery was declining in other parts of the world but there was still a significant amount of slaves in the South
Slavery & Liberty
Southerners enshrined the idea of equal rights for free men from the American Revolution (1760s and 1770)
Beginning of 1830s: SC became the home of an aggressive defense of slavery that repudiated the idea that freedom and equality were universal entitlements
After 1830: many southern writers and politicians devoted themselves to defending slavery as a foundation of an organic, hierarchical society
Blacks inferior to whites
Slavery & Civilization
George Fitzhugh said universal liberty was an experiment & that slavery was the natural basis of a civilized society
Slaves in the south lacked economic cares, so Fitzhugh concluded they were the happiest and freest people in the world
White workers would be better have individual owners than living as slaves of the economic marketplace
Lincoln thought the pro-slavery argument was from those who benefited from the unfair system
Ex: Frederick Ross & his slave, Sambo
Life Under Slavery
Slaves & the Law
By 1830s, it was against the law to teach a slave to read or write
Some slaveholding families taught slave children to read
The entire system of southern justice was designed to enforce the master’s control over the person and labor of his slaves
Missouri courts case against Cecilia
Conditions of Slave Life
Some southern state enacted laws to prevent the mistreatment of slaves
Material living conditions improved
Compared to slaves in the West Indies and Brazil, American slaves enjoyed better diets, lower rates of infant mortality, and longer life expectancies
Improvement in slave condition was meant to strengthen slavery not undermined it
Free Blacks in the Old South
Slavery helped to define the status on free blacks
Free blacks in South could legally own property and marry
Many regulations restricting their lives despite being free
No voice in selecting public office
Had to carry around a certificate of freedom
Poor free blacks who required public assistance could be bound out to labor alongside slaves
Brazil and other parts of the world
Brazil had a large free black population
West indies had children of slaves gaining freedom
Free blacks in Jamaica worked as clerks in govt officials
Free blacks were dangerous to the slave system
By 1850, most southern states prohibited free blacks from entering their territory OR offered a choice of enslavement or departure
Few blacks manages to prosper in Southern states, but they still accounted to limited rights
William Johnson
The Upper & Lower South
Free blacks faced discrimination even within their own communities
Some achieved success, but most were poor
Free blacks and slaves were described by Willis A. Hodges as “one man of sorrow,” emphasizing their shared hardships
Slave Labor
Slavery was a system of labor, so they didn’t just work in field plantations
Other plantations counted among engineering, blacksmiths, and weavers
Manufacturer work
Steamboats, railroads, iron and coal mines
Many small farmers and manufacturers rented slaves from plantation owners
Simon Gray
Gang Labor & Task Labor
Gang labor suffered brutality & worked in groups w/ constant supervision
Largest concentration of slaves was in the Cotton Belt
Task laborers had individual tasks and could work at their own pace with less supervision
when they finished, they spent the day hunting, fishing, or cultivating garden crops
Rice plantations of SC & GA
White didn’t want to get malaria from the infested swamps so that’s why they didn’t supervise
Slavery in the Cities
Most city slaves were servants, cooks, and other domestic laborers
Sometimes owner’s allowed urban slaves with craft skills to make individual arrangements with other employers
Many urban slaves lived on their own
In fear that growing independence could influence a movement among urban slaves, many owners in the 1850s sold city slaves to the countryside & replaced slaves with skilled white labors
Maintaining Order
Force was the main discipline to persuade slaves in productive labor
Many slaves were whipped for even the most minor things
Subtler means of control underlying violence
Owner encouraged and exploited divisions among slaves
Field hands and house servants
Created systems of motivations that rewarded good work w/ time off or even money payment
Threat of slaves was motivation for slaves to work in fear they would be separated from immediate family & communities that African-Americans created on plantations throughout the South
Slave Culture
Semi-independent culture centered on the family & church
Survive bondage without surrendering self-esteem
Pass from generation a set of ideals & values
Shaped by African traditions & American values and experiences
The Slave Family
West Indies: men > women
US: equal distribution → more family
Masters had to consent to slave marriages
Slaves frequently named their children after relatives to strengthen family community
Differences from whites
Did not marry cousins
Higher number of female-headed households
Children sometimes raised by extended families due to sale
The Threat of Sale
Powerful disciplinary weapon slaveholders possessed
Reflection of paternalist responsibilities, some owners encouraged slaves to marry because they were aware of family connections
Slave children were old enough to enter plantation at 10
Slave traders gave little attention to preserving family ties
Gender Roles among Slaves
Equality of powerlessness
Cult of domesticity did not apply to slave women
Slave men could not act as the economic providers or protectors for their families
Abuse women faced
Conditions children worked
“Working on their own time”
Slave men chopped wood, hunted, and fished
Women washed, sewed, and assumed primary responsibility for the care of children
Some planters gave slaves plot of land for growing food to supplement rations
Slave Religion
Christianity gave solace in times of hardship & hope for liberation
Some black people took part in the Great Awakening
Every plantation had its own black preacher
Rhetoric abilities & familiarity w/ the bible made them one of the most respected members of slave community
Slaves also worshiped in biracial congregations with white ministers
To masters, Christianity offered another means of social control
Many required slaves to attend services
White ministers preached theft was immoral and that the Bible required servants to obey their masters
The Gospel of Freedom
African traditions and Christian beliefs blended → slaves transformation of their purpose of Christianity
Practiced in secret during the night
Gatherings on plantations
Praise meetings replete w/ shouts, dances, and frequent emotional interchanges between the preacher and the congregation
Exodus and moses were central stories in Black Christianity
Slaves identified with the Israelities as God’s chosen people
Moses symbolized hope for deliverance from Bondage
Jesus provided comfort and spiritual strength to endure hardship
Seen as a personal savior who cared for the oppressed
Messages of brotherhood and equality before god were used as moral arguments against slavery
The Desire for Liberty
Slave culture was used as hope for liberation
Songs, folklore
Slaves created neighborhood networks that transmitted information between plantations
Privileged slaves spread news of local and national events
Rural slaves became extremely familiar with the local landscape, crops, and population but had little knowledge of the larger world
Resistance to Slavery
Slaves could only, but rarely, express their desire for freedom by rebellion
Forms of Resistance
“Day-to-day” resistance or “silent sabotage”
Poor work, breaking tools, abusing animals, and disrupting the plantation routine
Sometimes slaves would pretend to be ill to avoid work
More dangerous crimes committed against whites were less frequent
Fugitive Slaves
War provided opportunity for mass escape
War Of independence
Large majority were young men because most slave women were not willing to leave children behind
Taking children on the arduous journey was nearly impossible
Fugitives tended to head to cities like New Orleans or Charlestons among growing communities of free blacks
40% stayed in local neighborhoods, 30% headed to other locations in the south, 25% tried to reach north
The Underground Railroad
System of routes and safehouses through which slaves were led to freedom in the North
Harriet Tubman was an abolitionist who escaped to the North and returned to the South nineteen times to guide 300 slaves to freedom
Interlocking local networks involving black and white abolitionist
By 1850s, slaves were using numerous means of escape
Hiding on boats with the help of sympathetic captains and sailors, taking an owner’s horse and carriages, and boarding trains
Escaped slaves challenged pro-slavery propaganda about contented slaves
The U.S. pressured Canada and Mexico to return fugitives but failed, creating diplomatic tensions
Recapturing fugitives in free states showed slavery’s power extended beyond the South
Northern citizens were forced to confront the conflict between morality and obeying the law
The Amistad
Uprising on the Amistad ship, which transported African slaves from one port in Cuba to another
Abolitionists brought this case to Supreme Court
John Quincy Adams said captives deserved liberation since slave trades were banned → captives went back to Africa
Inspired the 1841 Creole ship rebellion
Slaves being transported from VA to New Orleans sailed for Nassu in the British Bahama; food refuge in British Bahamas
Led by Madison Washington
Slave Revolts
Major conspiracies:
Much of conspiracies comes from secret trials
Secret trials were done in private with no public allowed
The accused couldn’t see or question the people accusing them, which made it hard for the accused to defend themselves
SC governor, Thomas Bennet Jr, thought it was unfair & said that wasn’t how trials worked
Attorney Court General, Robert Y. Hayne, said slaves didn’t have the same rights as whites, so it was justifiable
Nat Turner’s Rebellion
Most important slave uprising in 19th century America
Led by slave preacher, Nat Turner, who, with his followers, killed about 60 whites in Southampton County, VA in 1831
“Was Christ not crucified?”
Nat Turner’s sent shock waves through the South
Many innocent slaves were whipped and scores executed in fear of having another Nat Turner
Gradual emancipation for slaves failed to win legislative approval
VA legislature of 1831 decided to tighten bondages
New laws
prohibited blacks, free or slave, from acting as preachers
Strengthened militia and patrol system
Banned free blacks from owning firearms
Prohibited teaching slaves to read
Turning point for south
South’s “great reaction” produced ongoing suppression of freedom of speech in American history; southern politics HAD agree in defense of slavery