Comprehensive Study Guide for Religious Studies and Islamic Culture
Institutional and Academic Context of the Religious Studies Test Collection
The academic materials presented are regulated by the O’zbekiston Respublikasi Oliy ta’lim, fan va innovatsiyalar vazirligi (Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Innovation of the Republic of Uzbekistan) and specifically within Buxoro Davlat Universiteti (Bukhara State University). These notes were derived from a test collection approved for use in the academic year for all undergraduate students. The educational program is curated by the department of “Islom tarixi va manbashunosligi, falsafa” (History of Islam and Source Studies, Philosophy). The primary developer of these materials is Xaydarova X.B., a senior teacher at the university. Reviewers include Professor Namozov B.B., the Dean of the Faculty of History and Law, and Associate Professor Sayfullayeva D.K., the head of the department. The contents were formally discussed and recommended during the departmental meeting number held on November , .
General Definitions and Methodological Foundations of Religion
Religion is fundamentally defined as a system of belief (ishonch) and faith (e’tiqod), though it also encompasses morality, worship, and judgment. Scholars identify three primary roots of religion: gnoseological (knowledge-based), social (ijtimoiy), and psychological (psixologik). Within the broader social structure, religion functions as a form of social consciousness (Ijtimoiy ong shakli). The academic study of religion classification identifies several historical types: tribal/ancestral religions (urug’-qabila), national-state religions (milliy–davlat), and world religions (jahon). Dinshunoslik (Religious Studies) as an academic term was first introduced into usage by the European scholar Maks Myuller. Other significant figures in the philosophical study of divinity include Foma Akvinskiy (Thomas Aquinas), the founder of Neotomizm, and scholars like Rudolf Otto and Edvard Teylor. In a broader philosophical sense, Teologiya (Theology) is the study of divinity, while Mifologiya (Mythology) refers to a mythical or legendary understanding of the world. Worldviews are categorized into four types: mythological, religious, philosophical, and scientific.
Primitive and Tribal Forms of Religious Belief
The earliest forms of religious expression are characterized by tribal or ancestral beliefs. Fetishism (Fetishizm) is the practice of deifying material objects. Totemism (Totemizm) involves the belief in a mystical connection between a human or tribe and specific animals, birds, or plants. Animizm (Animizm) is the belief in the existence of souls and spirits inhabiting objects or nature. Magiya (Magic) and Shomonizm (Shamanism) are also included in this category, with Shomonizm specifically involving a "Shomon" who acts as a mediator or communicator with the spirit world, often associated with words meaning an "excited" or "ecstatic" person. Another concept found in polytheistic evolutionary stages is Genoteizm, which refers to the belief in many gods while regarding one as the supreme or chief deity. In contrast, Politeizm refers to polytheism (many gods), and Monoteizm refers to monotheism (one single god). Ateizm is defined as a system of scientific views that rejects the existence of God and religion.
Religions of Ancient Civilizations
Ancient religions were predominantly polytheistic and tied to specific civilizations. In Ancient Egypt, prominent deities included Isida, Osiris, Amon-Ra, and Tot. Ancient Mesopotamia (Babylon) worshiped Gods such as Marduk, Shamash, Sina, Ishtar, Ea, and Ashshur. The Ancient Greeks worshiped a pantheon led by Zevs (Sky God), Afrodita (Goddess of love and beauty), Ares (God of war), and Appolon. The Ancient Romans adopted similar structures with deities like Yupiter (Sky God), Mars (War God), Minerva, and Yunona. These polytheistic societies utilized specific spaces for worship, such as temples (ibodatxona) or shrines where icons and fetishes were placed. The study of the origins of humanity itself is categorized under the science of antropologiya (anthropology).
National-State Religions and Eastern Philosophical Systems
National religions are those specifically tied to a particular ethnicity or state. These include Iudaizm (Judaism), Hinduizm, Konfusiylik (Confucianism), and Sintoizm (Shinto). Shintoism is the ancient national religion of Japan, centered on the goddess Amaterasu and the Mikado (Emperor), whom adherents believe to be a divine descendant of heavenly spirits. Its sacred text is the “Kodziki”. In China, Daosizm (Taoism), founded by Lao Szi with the primary source “Daodeszin”, and Confucianism (Konfusiylik), focused on social, ethical, and political problems using concepts like “Jeng” (humanity) and “Li” (moral norms), are dominant. In India, Hinduizm is the largest national religion globally by population, featuring the triad of Braxma (Brahma), Vishnu, and Shiva. It is rooted in the “Vedalar” (Vedas), with the Upanishada as the final stage of Vedic literature. Hindu society was traditionally governed by the Manu qonunlari (Laws of Manu), which regulated the kasta (caste) system. Iudaizm (Judaism) originated in Ancient Palestine during the millennium BCE, worshiping the god Yahve and following the Prophet Muso (Moses). Its sacred texts are the Tavrot (Torah) and Talmud, and its primary place of worship is the Sinagoga. Significant Jewish holidays include Pesax, Rosh ashona (New Year), and Yom kipur.
Zoroastrianism and Central Asian Heritage
Zardushtiylik (Zoroastrianism) originated in Central Asia and Iran. It is a dualistic religion centered on the struggle between Axuramazda (the god of goodness and light) and Axriman (the god of evil and darkness). The sacred text of Zoroastrianism is the “Avesto”, which, according to Abu Rayhon Beruniy’s work “Qadimgi xalqlardan qolgan yodgorliklar”, was originally written on cowhides. The first European to translate the Avesto was the French scholar Anketil Dyuperon. The religion venerates four elements: water, fire, earth, and air. A sacred fire building is known as a Dodgoh. Today, a significant cultural center for Zoroastrians remains in Mumbay (Mumbai). Tangrichilik is the ancient belief system associated with the early Turkic peoples, worshiping Tangri (Sky God) and utilizing a totem like the Bozkurt (Grey Wolf).
Buddhism: Philosophy and Evolution
Buddizm (Buddhism) is one of the three major world religions, alongside Christianity and Islam. It was founded in India during the centuries BCE by Siddharta Gautama. The core teaching involves the "Four Noble Truths" describing suffering and the path to its cessation, leading to the state of Nirvana. The sacred scripture is the Tripitaka (meaning “three baskets of wisdom”). Buddhism split into two primary branches: Maxayana (“Large Vehicle”) and Xinayana (“Small Vehicle”). A third branch, Lamaizm, developed around the centuries. The religion emphasizes Axloq (ethics), Meditasiya (meditation/concentration), and Donolik (wisdom). In Uzbekistan, ancient Buddhist artifacts have been discovered in sites like Eski Termiz, Fayoztepa, and Qoratepa, indicating the religion entered Central Asia during the Kushon (Kushan) Empire period.
Christianity: Doctrines, History, and Schisms
Xristianlik (Christianity) centers on the Prophet Iso (Jesus), born in Vifleym (Bethlehem). The sacred book is the Bibliya, consisting of the Eski Axd (Old Testament) and Yangi Axd (New Testament/Injil). The word "Injil" translates from Greek as "Good News" (Xushxabar). Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire around - AD. In , a major schism occurred between Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) branches. The three main branches are Katolisizm (Catholicism), centered in Vatikan; Pravoslavie (Orthodoxy), which has independent churches; and Protestantizm, which emerged in the century and includes groups like the Lyuteranlik (Lutherans) and Kalvinizm (founded by Djon Kalvin). Concepts include Indulgensiya (remittance of sin), the Holy Trinity (Ota xudo, o’gil xudo, muqaddas ruh), and the use of the Altar as the high point of a church for sermons. Russia officially adopted Christianity in AD.
Islam: Foundations and Jurisprudence
Islom (Islam) is the final world religion, appearing in the century in the Hijaz region of Arabia. The Prophet Muhammad began his mission at age . The Hijriy calendar begins from the year AD, marking the migration to Medina. The holy book, the Qur’oni Karim, was revealed over years and consists of suras and verses. It was first compiled into a book format during the reign of Caliph Abu Bakr (- AD), and finally established during Caliph Usmon's reign ( AD). The five pillars (rukn) are Iymon (faith), namoz (prayer), ro’za (fasting), zakot (alms), and haj (pilgrimage). Shariat is the system of moral and legal rules, including categories of actions: Farz (obligatory), Mubox (permissible), Mandub (preferable), and Makruh (disliked). The major schools of jurisprudence (madhhab) include Hanafiya (founded by Imom Azam/Abu Hanifa), Hanbaliya, Shofeiya, and Molekiya. In Uzbekistan, the Hanafi madhhab and the Moturudiya school of theology are predominant.
Sufism and Scholarship in Central Asia
Tasavvuf (Sufism) is described as the "philosophy of human spiritual perfection," emerging between the centuries. Key schools or tariqas in Central Asia include Naqshbandiya (founded by Baxouddin Naqshband with the motto "Dilba-yor, dastba kor" - "Heart with God, hand at work"), Yassaviya (Ahmad Yassaviy), and Kubroviya (Najmiddin Kubro). Major scholars include Imom al-Buxoriy (the great collector of Hadith and author of "Al adab al mufrad"), Mahmud Az-Zamaxshariy (author of "Al-Kashshof"), and Burhoniddin Marg‘inoniy (author of "Hidoya"). The Moturudiya school, founded by Abu Mansur Moturidiy, was recognized as a distinct school of theology in Movarounnahr in the century. Recent developments include the establishment of the Imom Buxoriy International Center on May , , and the Islamic Civilization Center in Tashkent in .
Missionary Work, Prozelitizm, and Legislation
Missionerlik (Missionary work) is defined as proselytizing/inviting others to a religion, while Prozelitizm (Proselytism) is the forceful or coercive conversion of an individual from one faith to another. Both are prohibited under the laws of Uzbekistan, specifically the Law "On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations" (, revised ). Violation of these laws entails administrative and criminal liability. The Constitution of Uzbekistan guarantees freedom of conscience in Article (new edition) and states that religion is separated from the state (Article ). To register a religious organization, at least members are required. Currently, there are registered religious confessions in Uzbekistan. Sekulyarizatsiya (Secularization) refers to the removal of religious dominance from social and public life to form secular relations.
Contemporary Challenges and International Initiatives
Modernday threats include religious extremism, radicalism, and fanaticism (mutaassiblik). Specific extremist groups mentioned include "Hizb-at tahrir" (founded in ), "Iroq va Shom Islom Davlati" (IShID, appearing in ), and "Vaxxobiylar" (originating in Saudi Arabia in the century). The social danger of religious propaganda in Kibermakon (Cyberspace) involves the radicalization of citizens. In response, Uzbekistan promotes "Jaholatga qarshi - ma’rifat" (Enlightenment against ignorance). At the session of the United Nations (BMT) General Assembly on September , , President Shavkat Mirziyoyev proposed the resolution "Ma’rifat va diniy bag’rikenglik" (Education and Religious Tolerance), which was adopted on December , . Additionally, Tashkent was named the capital of Islamic culture in by ISESCO (Aysesko), and Bukhara received the same title in . The year in Uzbekistan is designated as the year of "Atrof-muhitni asrash va 'yashil' iqtisodiyot yili" (Environmental Protection and Green Economy Year).