The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the End of the Second Century CE

History as a Driver for Research into the Historical Jesus - The political history of Galilee is a foundational element in interpreting the life and mission of Jesus. - Walter Grundmann published 'Jesus der Galiläer und das Judentum' in $1940$, arguing 'Jesus kein Jude war' (Jesus was not a Jew) based on a specific reading of Galilean history. - Emil Schürer established the view of Galilee as a 'halbheidnischen Randjudentum' (half-Jewish quasi Judaism). - Schürer's theory posited that the Hasmonean takeover of Galilee in $104\,BCE$ involved the forceful circumcision of previously settled non-Jewish tribes, such as the Itureans, following the Assyrian conquest of the northern kingdom in $732\,BCE$. - Richard A. Horsley utilizes the history of Galilee to argue for an anti-imperial reading of the Gospels, viewing Galilee as heavily subdued by Roman pressure through client rulers like Herod Antipas. # Galilee Reborn: The Hasmonean Period ($104-63\,BCE$) - Aristobulus I ($104-103\,BCE$) is credited by Josephus (citing the Timagenes fragment) with acquiring Iturean territory for Judea and compelling inhabitants to be circumcised and live according to Jewish laws. - Josephus describes Aristobulus I as having a 'kindly nature' and being 'wholly given to modesty,' a view supported by Strabo. - Three models explain the pre-Hasmonean demographics of Galilee: 1. The Schürer View: Galilee was populated by Itureans and pagan tribes who were forcefully judaized in the late second century $BCE$. 2. The Albrecht Alt View: Galilee remained largely Israelite in its interior; Tiglath-pileser III's $733/732\,BCE$ campaign only exiled the elite, leaving the peasantry on the land. 3. The Archaeological/Judean Migration View: Galilee was largely depopulated before a mass influx of settlers from the south. - Zvi Gal's survey of Lower Galilee ($1992$) showed $60$ settlements from $1000-733/732\,BCE$ dropping to zero from $733/732-586\,BCE$, suggesting a total devastation of the northern kingdom. - Written evidence for Judean presence includes $1\,Maccabees\,5:9-23$, where Simeon rescues Jewish settlers in Galilee ($164\,BCE$), and reports that Hyrcanus I ($134-104\,BCE$) had Alexander Jannæus brought up in Galilee. - Archaeological data demonstrates a massive settlement wave: 1. Upper Galilee settlements rose from $106$ (Hellenistic) to $170$ (Roman). 2. Golan settlements grew from $75$ (Hellenistic) to $182$ (Roman). 3. Uzi Leibner's survey of $285\,sq\,km$ in eastern Lower Galilee used David Adan-Bayewitz's pottery classification to find settlements rose from $22$ (Hellenistic) to $41$ ($50\,BCE - 135\,CE$). - Danny Syon's study of $10,000$ coins shows Hasmonean coinage drastically replaced bronze coinage from Akko-Ptolemais and Tyre. # Roman Reorganization and Tribal Unrest ($63-37\,BCE$) - Pompey the Great entered Jerusalem in $63\,BCE$, initiating Roman control. - Socioeconomic impact debated: Shimon Applebaum argues Pompey's removal of city-states created a 'considerable class of landless Jewish peasants.' - Richard Horsley describes this as a period of 'Roman devastation and slaughter' with hundreds of insurgents hanged. - Historical events: 1. Gabinius ($57\,BCE$) divided the country into five regions; Sepphoris was named capital over Galilee. 2. Gabinius defeated Alexander (son of Aristobulus II) at Mount Tabor, where Alexander had raised $30,000$ men. 3. Cassius, fleeing a Parthian defeat in $53\,BCE$, enslaved $30,000$ men at Taricheae. - Rise of Herod: Herod was appointed governor ($στpаτууός$) of Galilee in $47\,BCE$ at age $25$. He executed Ezekias the 'arch-robber' ($axis$) but was later charged by the Jerusalem council for execution without trial. - Herod was crowned King in $40\,BCE$ in Rome and retook the land with Roman support, capturing Jerusalem in $37\,BCE$. - Resistance to Herod in Galilee included the 'cave dwellers' of Arbela, who required unorthodox military methods to defeat. # Herodian Hegemony and the Impact of Herod Antipas ($37\,BCE-66\,CE$) - Herod the Great ($37-4\,BCE$) invested little in Galilee fortifications or monumental buildings compared to Judea. - Herod Antipas ruled from $4\,BCE$ to $39\,CE$. He established two major cities: 1. Sepphoris: Enclosed with a wall, renamed 'Autocratoris' (equivalent to Latin 'Imperatoria'), and called the 'ornament' ($πpóσxua$) of all Galilee. 2. Tiberias: Founded $19-20\,CE$ over a graveyard; Antipas forcefully moved a 'promiscuous rabble' to live there. Facilities included a palace with golden ceilings, a stadium, a royal archive, a huge synagogue, and hot baths. - Socioeconomic Debate: Mordechai Aviam sees Antipas's reign as 'growing and flourishing' with high agricultural and Special goods production. Richard Horsley sees it as a 'structural political-economic conflict' causing a slide into banditry. - Upheavals: 1. Judas the Galilean (son of Ezekias) revolted in $6\,CE$ against the census of Quirinius. 2. John the Baptist's execution: Antipas feared John's influence would lead to a rebellion ($άлóστaσis$). 3. After Antipas: Agrippa I ruled ($39-44\,CE$), followed by direct Roman rule. Nero later granted Tiberias and Taricheae to Agrippa II. # Galilee in the Jewish War ($66-67\,CE$) - Josephus Flavius was appointed general to oversee the defense of Galilee. - Regional instability featured internal conflicts: Sepphoris and Tiberias fought for supremacy; rural 'Galileans' opposed city elites. - Fortifications: Josephus fortified $19$ sites, including Jotapata ($1-km$ wall), Mount Tabor ($2-km$ wall), and Gamala ($200-m$ wall). - Vespasian's Campaign ($67\,CE$): Conquest included Gabara, Jotapata (siege lasting $47$ days), Tiberias, Taricheae, Gamala, Mount Tabor, and Gischala. - Gamala rebel coins read 'LG'LT' and 'YR'SLM HQ' ('For the redemption of Jerusalem, the Holy'). - Sepphoris declared itself a 'peace-city' ($irenopolis$) on coins minted in $68\,CE$. # Post-War Transformation and Spiritual Center ($70-200\,CE$) - Increased Roman presence: Hadrian ($117-138\,CE$) moved the sixth legion, Ferrata, to Legio (Kaperkotnei/Kefar ‘Othnay) at Tel Megiddo. - Urbanization: Construction of the Hadrianeum (temple to Zeus/Hadrian) in Tiberias. - Demographic Shift: After the Bar Kokhba revolt, priestly clans and leading rabbis moved to Galilee. - Spiritual center: Judah the Prince (Yehudah ha-Nasi) compiled the Mishnah while residing in Beth She'arim and Sepphoris. - Intellectual growth: Rabbi Yohanan established beth ha-Midrash ha-Gadol (Great Study House) in Tiberias in $235\,CE$, leading to the Palestinian Talmud. # Final Synthesis of Trends - Galilee was a Jewish heartland with deep ties to Judea through Hasmonean migration policy. - While Galilee saw significant battles, it suffered less cumulative devastation than Jerusalem. - Herod Antipas's reign was a period of flourishing settlement and economic expansion, not just social conflict. - The Jewish War in Galilee was defined more by internal factionalism than a unified front. - Post-war Galilee became the definitive spiritual and legislative home of Judaism for centuries.

• The political history of Galilee is a foundational element in interpreting the life and mission of Jesus.

• Walter Grundmann published 'Jesus der Galiläer und das Judentum' in $1940$, arguing 'Jesus kein Jude war' (Jesus was not a Jew) based on a specific reading of Galilean history.

• Emil Schürer established the view of Galilee as a 'halbheidnischen Randjudentum' (half-Jewish quasi Judaism).

• Schürer's theory posited that the Hasmonean takeover of Galilee in $104 BCE$ involved the forceful circumcision of previously settled non-Jewish tribes, such as the Itureans, following the Assyrian conquest of the northern kingdom in $732 BCE$.

• Richard A. Horsley utilizes the history of Galilee to argue for an anti-imperial reading of the Gospels, viewing Galilee as heavily subdued by Roman pressure through client rulers like Herod Antipas.

Galilee Reborn: The Hasmonean Period ($104-63 BCE$)

• Aristobulus I ($104-103 BCE$) is credited by Josephus (citing the Timagenes fragment) with acquiring Iturean territory for Judea and compelling inhabitants to be circumcised and live according to Jewish laws.

• Josephus describes Aristobulus I as having a 'kindly nature' and being 'wholly given to modesty,' a view supported by Strabo.

Three Models Explaining Pre-Hasmonean Demographics of Galilee:

1. The Schürer View: Galilee was populated by Itureans and pagan tribes who were forcefully judaized in the late second century BCE.

2. The Albrecht Alt View: Galilee remained largely Israelite in its interior; Tiglath-pileser III's $733/732 BCE$ campaign only exiled the elite, leaving the peasantry on the land.

3. The Archaeological/Judean Migration View: Galilee was largely depopulated before a mass influx of settlers from the south.

• Zvi Gal's survey of Lower Galilee ($1992$) showed $60$ settlements from $1000-733/732 BCE$ dropping to zero from $733/732-586 BCE$, suggesting a total devastation of the northern kingdom.

• Written evidence for Judean presence includes $1 Maccabees 5:9-23$, where Simeon rescues Jewish settlers in Galilee ($164 BCE$), and reports that Hyrcanus I ($134-104 BCE$) had Alexander Jannæus brought up in Galilee.

• Archaeological data demonstrates a massive settlement wave:

  1. Upper Galilee settlements rose from $106$ (Hellenistic) to $170$ (Roman).

  2. Golan settlements grew from $75$ (Hellenistic) to $182$ (Roman).

  3. Uzi Leibner's survey of $285 sq km$ in eastern Lower Galilee used David Adan-Bayewitz's pottery classification to find settlements rose from $22$ (Hellenistic) to $41$ ($50 BCE - 135 CE$).

• Danny Syon's study of $10,000$ coins shows Hasmonean coinage drastically replaced bronze coinage from Akko-Ptolemais and Tyre.

Roman Reorganization and Tribal Unrest ($63-37 BCE$)

• Pompey the Great entered Jerusalem in $63 BCE$, initiating Roman control.

• The socioeconomic impact is debated: Shimon Applebaum argues Pompey's removal of city-states created a 'considerable class of landless Jewish peasants.'

• Richard Horsley describes this as a period of 'Roman devastation and slaughter' with hundreds of insurgents hanged.

Historical Events:

1. Gabinius ($57 BCE$) divided the country into five regions; Sepphoris was named capital over Galilee.

2. Gabinius defeated Alexander (son of Aristobulus II) at Mount Tabor, where Alexander had raised $30,000$ men.

3. Cassius, fleeing a Parthian defeat in $53 BCE$, enslaved $30,000$ men at Taricheae.

• Rise of Herod: Herod was appointed governor ($στpатууός$) of Galilee in $47 BCE$ at age $25$. He executed Ezekias the 'arch-robber' ($axis$) but was later charged by the Jerusalem council for execution without trial.

• Herod was crowned King in $40 BCE$ in Rome and retook the land with Roman support, capturing Jerusalem in $37 BCE$.

• Resistance to Herod in Galilee included the 'cave dwellers' of Arbela, who required unorthodox military methods to defeat.

Herodian Hegemony and the Impact of Herod Antipas ($37 BCE-66 CE$)

• Herod the Great ($37-4 BCE$) invested little in Galilee fortifications or monumental buildings compared to Judea.

• Herod Antipas ruled from $4 BCE$ to $39 CE$. He established two major cities:

  1. Sepphoris: Enclosed with a wall, renamed 'Autocratoris' (equivalent to Latin 'Imperatoria'), and called the 'ornament' ($πpóσxua$) of all Galilee.

  2. Tiberias: Founded $19-20 CE$ over a graveyard; Antipas forcefully moved a 'promiscuous rabble' to live there. Facilities included a palace with golden ceilings, a stadium, a royal archive, a huge synagogue, and hot baths.

• Socioeconomic Debate: Mordechai Aviam sees Antipas's reign as 'growing and flourishing' with high agricultural and Special goods production. Richard Horsley sees it as a 'structural political-economic conflict' causing a slide into banditry.

• Upheavals:

  1. Judas the Galilean (son of Ezekias) revolted in $6 CE$ against the census of Quirinius.

  2. John the Baptist's execution: Antipas feared John's influence would lead to a rebellion ($άлóστaσis$).

  3. After Antipas: Agrippa I ruled ($39-44 CE$), followed by direct Roman rule. Nero later granted Tiberias and Taricheae to Agrippa II.

Galilee in the Jewish War ($66-67 CE$)

• Josephus Flavius was appointed general to oversee the defense of Galilee.

• Regional instability featured internal conflicts: Sepphoris and Tiberias fought for supremacy; rural 'Galileans' opposed city elites.

• Fortifications: Josephus fortified $19$ sites, including Jotapata ($1 km$ wall), Mount Tabor ($2 km$ wall), and Gamala ($200 m$ wall).

• Vespasian's Campaign ($67 CE$): Conquest included Gabara, Jotapata (siege lasting $47$ days), Tiberias, Taricheae, Gamala, Mount Tabor, and Gischala.

• Gamala rebel coins read 'LG'LT' and 'YR'SLM HQ' ('For the redemption of Jerusalem, the Holy').

• Sepphoris declared itself a 'peace-city' ($irenopolis$) on coins minted in $68 CE$.

Post-War Transformation and Spiritual Center ($70-200 CE$)

• Increased Roman presence: Hadrian ($117-138 CE$) moved the sixth legion, Ferrata, to Legio (Kaperkotnei/Kefar ‘Othnay) at Tel Megiddo.

• Urbanization: Construction of the Hadrianeum (temple to Zeus/Hadrian) in Tiberias.

• Demographic Shift: After the Bar Kokhba revolt, priestly clans and leading rabbis moved to Galilee.

• Spiritual center: Judah the Prince (Yehudah ha-Nasi) compiled the Mishnah while residing in Beth She'arim and Sepphoris.

• Intellectual growth: Rabbi Yohanan established beth ha-Midrash ha-Gadol (Great Study House) in Tiberias in $235 CE$, leading to the Palestinian Talmud.

Final Synthesis of Trends

• Galilee was a Jewish heartland with deep ties to Judea through Hasmonean migration policy.

• While Galilee saw significant battles, it suffered less cumulative devastation than Jerusalem.

• Herod Antipas's reign was a period of flourishing settlement and economic expansion, not just social conflict.

• The Jewish War in Galilee was defined more by internal factionalism than a unified front.

• Post-war Galilee became the definitive spiritual and legislative home of Judaism for centuries.

• The political history of Galilee is a foundational element in interpreting the life and mission of Jesus.

• Walter Grundmann published 'Jesus der Galiläer und das Judentum' in $1940$, arguing 'Jesus kein Jude war' (Jesus was not a Jew) based on a specific reading of Galilean history.

• Emil Schürer established the view of Galilee as a 'halbheidnischen Randjudentum' (half-Jewish quasi Judaism).

• Schürer's theory posited that the Hasmonean takeover of Galilee in $104 BCE$ involved the forceful circumcision of previously settled non-Jewish tribes, such as the Itureans, following the Assyrian conquest of the northern kingdom in $732 BCE$.

• Richard A. Horsley utilizes the history of Galilee to argue for an anti-imperial reading of the Gospels, viewing Galilee as heavily subdued by Roman pressure through client rulers like Herod Antipas.