Democracy: Origins, Systems, and Evolution

Introduction and Anecdotes

• The transcript begins with a technical issue regarding a PowerPoint presentation not working until dragged to the desktop.
• An anecdote is shared about a shoplifter in Pennsylvania who stole a cheesecake by concealing it in his pants. The speaker clarifies that in Pennsylvania, "art of concealment" and passing all points of registration constitutes shoplifting, not necessarily leaving the store.
• Another anecdote involves the speaker's wife, who worked at a grocery store bakery in college. A theft ring would fill carts with groceries (e.g., lobster, crab legs, not rice cakes) and simply walk out, acting like they belonged. They were only caught due to the high value of stolen items creating inventory issues.

The Concept of Democracy

• The discussion transitions to democracy, noting that it will be explored in a non-traditional way over several classes.
• The United States operates as a presidential system with a first-past-the-post electoral system (most votes win).

Etymology and Definition

• The term "democracy" originates from Greek: demos (common people) and kratia (power or rule), meaning "power to the common people."
• Democracy vs. Republic:
  • The United States is technically a republic, or a representative democracy, not a pure democracy.
  • In a republic, citizens vote for representatives who then govern on their behalf.
  • In a pure democracy, citizens would vote on every bill and piece of legislation, which would be unwieldy for a country of $330,000,000$ people.
• Modern Definition: Political power exercised either directly or indirectly by the people. Theoretically, citizens vote for politicians based on their actions; if satisfied, they re-elect them; if not, they vote them out.

All Democracies Are Not Good Ones (A Spectrum)

• The traditional view in political science (e.g., during the speaker's graduate studies) was that countries either were or were not democracies, and democratization made things better.
• Modern understanding views democracy as a spectrum:
  • Liberal Democracy: (liberal in the classic sense, not American political sense) Promotes participation, competition, and liberty, emphasizing individual rights and civil rights/freedoms.
  • Illiberal Democracy: Has elections but undermines key democratic elements.
    • Example: Venezuela: Described as a "brutal authoritarian dictatorship" or a "giant prison." The average Venezuelan loses between $5$ and $10$ pounds per year due to lack of food. Many have fled. While elections are often free and fair after candidates are decided, the government actively prevents opposition candidates from running.
    • Example: Iran: A theocracy (religiously run government, with politics secondary to a religious leader/Muslim Imam). Iran has free and fair elections, but only once the candidates, who are usually friendly to the ruling party, are determined by the government.
• Many places have a "democratic veneer" without being truly democratic.

Freedom House

• A valuable resource for political science or social science research.
• Scores countries as:
  • Free
  • Partly Free
  • Not Free
• Visual data shows a relatively small number of "not free" and "free" countries, with a large and growing number of "partly free" countries, illustrating the trend towards illiberal democracy.

Historical Origins of Democracy

Ancient Greece

• Composed of many city-states, with Athens being prominent.
• Athens was a small community, allowing for direct democracy, where citizens voted on every issue.
• Only citizens could vote, a relatively small percentage (5-10 ext{%}) of the population, alongside many non-citizens and slaves.
• Voting Method: Citizens used white balls for "yes" and black balls for "no." The term "blackballed" (excluded from society) originates from this practice.

Ancient Rome

• Republican Rome ($300-40$ BC) contributed to the bureaucratization of government and the development of fixed institutions.
• Differentiation of Roles: Rome began to differentiate political roles.
  • Senate: Approximately $300$ members, depending on the period.
  • Consuls: Two consuls managed the government and military.
  • Praetors, Tribunes: Other stratified roles.
• Meritocratic Leadership: Rome began to place people in charge based on their competence (e.g., good soldiers leading the military) rather than bloodlines. This principle was later lost in the medieval world and revived by Genghis Khan.
• Pompeii Example:
  • Pompeii, buried by Mount Vesuvius in $79$ AD, offers a snapshot of Roman life.
  • It was a large, hot city, with only about a quarter excavated.
  • It was preserved as a time capsule, showing details like melted coins fused to brains and a painter's brush still on a wall where they fell.
  • Political Graffiti: Pompeii features extensive political graffiti from $79$ AD, demonstrating early campaign rhetoric (e.g., "Worshipers of ISIS really liked Florus for Aedile," "All the deadbeats once you vote for Miscarrius"). This shows that electioneering and political commentary haven't changed much over millennia.

Magna Carta ($1215$ AD)

• Context: After the Norman invasion of Britain ($1066$), the invaders found it difficult to control the large island.
• King John's Struggle: King John, not adept at governing, was forced to seek help from nobles (e.g., near York, Bath) to manage distant regions.
• Nobles' Opportunity: The nobles seized this chance to demand concessions from the king.
• Significance: The Magna Carta is crucial because King John had to acknowledge the limits of the monarchy and grant nobles a say, particularly concerning taxes and borrowing.
• Legacy: This directly influenced modern legislatures, where bills related to money ($</code>"money bills"<code>$) must originate in the lower house (e.g., the U.S. House of Representatives).
• Historical Artifacts: Four original copies of the $1215$ Magna Carta still exist, visible at Lincoln Cathedral, Salisbury Cathedral, and the British Library (two copies).

Design of Modern Democratic Regimes

The Executive

• The executive branch has two distinct roles:
  • Head of State: A symbolic embodiment of the people (referred to as "the glorified" in England).
  • Head of Government: Responsible for the day-to-day mechanisms of government, running the state, leading policy, and directing executive officers ("the efficient").
• Variation: Some places combine these roles, while others separate them.
  • United States: The President is both Head of State and Head of Government (e.g., hosting state dinners and running daily affairs).
  • United Kingdom: The roles are separated.
    • Head of Government: The Prime Minister (e.g., Keir Starmer).
    • Head of State: The Monarch (e.g., King Charles III), who handles symbolic duties.

The Legislature

• Shows significant variation in design across countries.
• Unicameral vs. Bicameral:
  • Unicameral Legislature: Has only one house. Common in smaller, more homogenous countries.
    • Examples: The Netherlands (which uses proportional representation with the entire country as one legislative district), Costa Rica.
  • Bicameral Legislature: Has two houses. Common in larger countries.
    • United States: Bicameral (House of Representatives and Senate). Historically, the House represented people, while the Senate represented states (changed about $100-110$ years ago, but states still get two senators).
• Tricameral Legislature (Historical Example):
  • South Africa under Apartheid: A race-based system of segregation ($1950s-1980s$), led by Nelson Mandela's eventual negotiations.
  • The tricameral legislature had one house for whites (10 ext{%} of the population), one for blacks, and one for people of Indian descent. This form no longer exists.
• Nebraska's Unique System: The U.S. state of Nebraska has a unicameral and nonpartisan state legislature, meaning legislators don't officially sit by party affiliation. It also divides its electoral votes, which is unusual.

Legislative Election Methods

• Direct Election: The simplest method; "most votes wins."
  • Examples: U.S. House members and senators. Also, the lower houses in France, Germany, and the UK.
  • This can lead to a winner with less than 50 ext{%} of the vote.
• Indirect Election: Groups other than direct voters choose representatives.
  • Examples: The French Senate and German Bundesrat (both upper houses) are chosen by state contingents, similar to how the U.S. Senate historically represented states rather than people.
• Heredity and Appointment (Declining):
  • UK House of Lords: Historically, lords inherited their seats. Since the late $1990s$, hereditary seats have been largely eliminated; appointments are now for life only and cannot be passed on.

The Judiciary

• Maintains and upholds the rule of law within a system.
• Functions: Interprets the application of law for criminal complaints and civil suits.
• Legal Hierarchy: Democratic countries typically have an appellate system, allowing those who lose a case to appeal to a higher court, though appeals can eventually be exhausted.
• Rule of Law: A fundamental principle that all people are equal under the law, irrespective of their power or status.

Systems of Government: Parliamentary vs. Presidential

Key Distinction: Relationship between Branches

• Parliamentary System: Legislative and executive branches are fused.
• Presidential System: Legislative and executive branches are separate (e.g., U.S. system of "separation of powers" and checks and balances).

Parliamentary System

• Fused Branches: To become Prime Minister, one must first be a member of the legislature.
• Indirect Election of Executive: Citizens vote for their Member of Parliament (MP). The party that wins the most seats then chooses its leader to be Prime Minister.
  • Example (UK): Voters choose an MP. All winning MPs go to London and select a Prime Minister (who is typically the leader of the winning party and known beforehand).
• No District Residency Requirement (UK): In countries like England, parliamentary candidates do not have to live in the district they represent. Parties can "slot" leaders into safe districts to ensure their election.
• Strong Party Control: This system gives party leaders significant control over their members.
  • If an MP behaves poorly, the party can place them in an unwinnable district, effectively ending their political career. This helps enforce party discipline and prevent members from making controversial or detrimental statements without repercussions.
  • Contrast with U.S.: American political parties are comparatively weak, lacking control over individual members, allowing politicians to make extreme or "dumbass" statements without party repercussions (e.g., criticism of Trump by Republicans in $2016$, inability of Democrats to remove Joe Biden if deemed unfit).

Presidential System

• Separate Branches: The executive (President) and legislative (Congress) branches are distinct and separately elected.
• Direct Election of Executive: Citizens directly vote for the president.
• Weak Party Control (Compared to Parliamentary): Parties have less formal power to control individual elected officials due to their independent electoral bases.

Semi-Presidential System

• Mentioned as a third primary way government systems are designed, but not elaborated upon in this session. (The speaker implies there are fewer of these compared to parliamentary and presidential systems).

The class will continue this discussion in the next session.