Survey of Forensic Science - Key Terminology

Course Overview & Key Requirements

  • Course Identification: FRSC 300 (Survey of Forensic Science), 3 credit hours, Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU).

  • Course Instructor: Dr. Baneshwar Singh (Office: Grace E. Harris Hall South, Room #2010).

  • Teaching Assistant: Mark Yong Hwan Lee.

  • Required Textbook: Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (13th or 12th Edition) by R. Saferstein & T. Roy.

  • Prerequisites: BIOL 151, BIOZ 151, CHEM 102, CHEZ 102, and UNIV 112 (minimum grade of C).

  • Pre-/Corequisites: CHEM 301, CHEZ 301, and UNIV 200 or HONR 200.

  • Grading Scheme:

    • 3 Mid-Term Exams: 100 points each

    • 5 Online Quizzes: 10 points each

    • 1 Oral Presentation: 100 points

    • Teamwork: 10 points

    • PowerPoint slide quality: 20 points

    • Depth of topic coverage: 30 points

    • Accuracy of presentation materials: 10 points

    • Individual score & Q&A performance: 30 points

    • 1 Journal Article Report: 80 points

    • Class Participation & Attendance: 50 points

    • Grading Scale: 90–100=A90–100=A, 80–89.5=B80–89.5=B, 70–79.5=C70–79.5=C, 60–69.5=D60–69.5=D, <60=F<60=F

  • Key Course Deadlines:

    • Group Names Due: 09/22/2026

    • Oral Presentation Topic Due: 10/08/2026

    • Journal Article Report Due: 11/05/2026 (11:59 PM)

    • PowerPoint Presentation Slides Due: 11/17/2026 (11:59 PM)

  • Class Policies:

    • Late assignment penalty: 10%10% reduction per day; no credit given after 1 week.

    • Mandatory attendance; cell phones off and laptops muted.

    • Generative AI tools and plagiarism are strictly prohibited.

History & Pioneers of Forensic Science

  • Definition: Forensic Science is the application of science to civil and criminal law.

  • Historical Milestones & Figures:

    1. Sung Tz'u (1247 A.D., China)

    • Authored The Washing Away of Wrongs, documenting the earliest applications of scientific knowledge to death investigation.

    1. M. J. B. Orfila (1787–1853)

    • Known as the "Father of Forensic Toxicology."

    • Performed the first successful toxicological detection of arsenic in human organs (Marie LaFarge trial, 1840).

    • Introduced opposing expert testimony into courtroom proceedings.

    1. Alphonse Bertillon (1879)

    • Known as the "Father of Criminal Identification."

    • Developed Anthropometry (Bertillonage), a system of personal identification using body measurements.

    1. Sir Francis Galton (1892)

    • Known as the "Father of Fingerprints."

    • Developed the primary methodology for classifying fingerprints; published Finger Prints in 1892.

    1. Albert Osborn (1910)

    • Known as the "Father of Questioned Documents."

    • Authored the foundational text Questioned Documents.

    1. Leone Lattes (1915)

    • Devised a chemical procedure to determine ABO blood grouping from dried bloodstains.

    1. Edmond Locard (1920)

    • Formulated Locard's Exchange Principle: "Every contact leaves a trace."

    • Dictates that when two objects come into contact, a mutual transfer of physical materials occurs.

    1. Calvin Goddard (1925)

    • Pioneer in firearm examination who instituted the use of the comparison microscope to match bullets and casing striations.

Crime Laboratories & Specialty Units

  • Development of Crime Laboratories:

    • First operational crime laboratory: Founded in France (1910) by Edmond Locard.

    • LAPD Forensic Laboratory (1923): The oldest crime lab in the United States.

    • FBI Crime Laboratory (1932): Established to serve law enforcement nationwide.

  • Federal Crime Laboratories:

    1. FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation): World's largest crime lab, addressing comprehensive criminal investigations.

    2. DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration): Specializes in analysis, production, and trafficking of illicit substances.

    3. ATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives): Analyzes alcohol, weapons, explosives, and tax law documents.

    4. USPS (U.S. Postal Service): Handles crimes related to mail fraud, security, and postal infrastructure.

  • Full-Service Crime Laboratory Units:

    • Physical Science Unit: Applies chemistry, physics, and geology to evaluate glass, paint, soil, explosives, and trace evidence.

    • Biology Unit: Processes DNA profiling, serology (blood, semen, saliva), hair and fiber comparison, and botanical materials.

    • Firearms Unit: Examines firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, tool-marks, and gunshot residue (GSR).

    • Document Examination Unit: Evaluates handwriting, typing, paper, ink, and document alterations for authenticity.

    • Photography Unit: Utilizes digital, infrared, ultraviolet, and X-ray imaging for evidence analysis and courtroom presentation.

    • Toxicology Unit: Analyzes body fluids and organs for drugs and poisons; operates breath-testing equipment (e.g., Intoxilyzer).

    • Latent Fingerprint Unit: Processes and develops hidden or faint friction ridge impressions.

    • Digital Evidence Unit: Recovers and analyzes digital evidence from computers, phones, and storage devices.

    • Polygraph Unit: Conducts polygraph (lie detector) examinations.

    • Voiceprint Analysis Unit: Transforms speech into visual graphics (voiceprints) via sound spectrographs.

    • Evidence-Collection Unit: Dispatches trained field technicians to collect and package evidence (does not perform lab analysis).

Functions of a Forensic Scientist

  1. Physical Evidence Analysis

    • Processes physical evidence using rigorous scientific principles and laboratory methodologies.

  2. Expert Testimony

    • Provides objective, factual testimony in legal proceedings to aid judges and juries in technical matters.

  3. Law Enforcement Training

    • Trains police officers and field agents in proper recognition, collection, and preservation of physical evidence.

  4. Application of Science to Law

    • Ensures scientific techniques meet legal criteria for evidentiary admissibility.

Standards for Evidence Admissibility

  • Frye Standard (Frye v. United States, 1923)

    • Scientific procedures or techniques must be "generally accepted" by the relevant scientific community to be admissible in court.

  • Federal Rules of Evidence (FRE) (1975)

    • Enacted by Congress as an alternative to Frye; permits evidence if it is relevant and assists the jury/judge in understanding facts.

  • Daubert Standard (Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 1993)

    • Designates the trial judge as the "gatekeeper" responsible for filtering out unscientific or speculative ("junk") testimony.

    • 5 Daubert Guidelines for Scientific Evidence:

    1. Whether the technique or scientific theory can be (and has been) tested.

    2. Whether the theory/technique has been subjected to peer review and publication.

    3. The technique's known or potential error rate.

    4. Existence and maintenance of standard operating procedures.

    5. Extent of acceptance within the relevant scientific community.

Expert Testimony & Industry Context

  • Requirements of an Expert Witness:

    • Must possess specialized education, formal training, experience, and skills.

    • Must remain objective, acting as an advocate for truth rather than an advocate for either legal party.

    • Subject to cross-examination by opposing counsel to evaluate qualification, methodology, and logic.

  • Professional Organizations:

    • American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS): Primary global professional organization, organized into 12 distinct sections (Anthropology, Criminalistics, Digital & Multimedia Sciences, Engineering & Applied Sciences, Forensic Nursing Science, General, Jurisprudence, Odontology, Pathology/Biology, Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Questioned Documents, Toxicology).

  • Current Trends & Employment:

    • Major industry challenges include persistent backlogs in DNA evidence requests.

    • Job growth for forensic science technicians is projected at 13%13% between 2024 and 2034 (faster than national average of 3%3%).

    • Median annual wage for forensic science technicians was approximately $67,440$67,440 in May 2024.