Chapter 29 - America at Midcentury

Introduction

  • Harry Truman's presidency marked the beginning of the Cold War, characterized by periods of intense conflict and tension between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Why the Cold War Began

  • Decolonization: The collapse of empires and economic instability following World War II contributed to a complex global landscape.

  • U.S. Economic and Strategic Needs: The expanding American economy influenced an interventionist postwar foreign policy, with the U.S. and USSR vying for strategic advantages in the "air age."

  • Truman’s Get-Tough Style: Truman's direct and sometimes abrasive approach was not always conducive to diplomatic solutions.

  • Debate over Soviet Intentions and Behavior: Critics argued that the Soviet threat was often exaggerated by policymakers.

Truman’s Cold War: Europe and Global Containment

  • Atomic Diplomacy: The U.S. initially used its atomic monopoly as a diplomatic tool.

  • Kennan and Churchill Warn Against Soviet Power:

    • George F. Kennan expressed skepticism about Soviet trustworthiness.

    • Winston Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech heightened American fears about Soviet expansionism.

  • Truman Doctrine: The U.S. committed to containing communism in response to a British request for aid against leftist insurgents in Greece and Turkey.

  • The “X” Article: George Kennan advocated for a policy of containing Soviet expansion.

  • Marshall Plan: The U.S. invested billions of dollars in Western Europe's recovery starting in 1947.

  • National Security Act: This act established key institutions:

    • Department of Defense

    • National Security Council

    • United States Information Agency

    • Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

  • Fulbright Program and Cultural Expansion: The U.S. initiated a "cultural Marshall Plan" to promote American values and influence.

  • Recognition of Israel: The U.S. quickly recognized Israel in 1948.

  • Berlin Blockade and Airlift:

    • The Soviets blocked Allied access to Berlin in response to the unification of Allied sections of Germany.

    • Truman responded with a massive airlift to supply West Berlin.

  • Point Four Program: In 1949, Truman launched this program to:

    • Improve food supplies

    • Enhance public health

    • Improve housing

    • Encourage private investment in Third World countries.

  • Founding of NATO: The Berlin crisis and Soviet atomic weapons development led to the creation of NATO, a collective security agreement among Western nations.

  • NSC-68: A secret document from the National Security Council in April 1950 called for increased defense spending and a public campaign to support these expenditures.

Asian Acrimony: Japan, China, and Vietnam

  • Reconstruction of Japan: The U.S. rebuilt Japan by:

    • Implementing a democratic constitution

    • Revitalizing the economy

    • Demilitarization

  • Communist Victory in Chinese Civil War: The U.S. continued to support Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) against Mao Zedong, despite Jiang's corruption.

  • U.S. Nonrecognition Policy: Truman refused to recognize Mao Zedong's People’s Republic of China after the communist victory.

  • Vietnam’s Quest for Independence:

    • The Vietnamese resisted French colonialism.

    • The Vietminh declared independence in 1945 after the collapse of French authority during World War II.

    • The Cold War led the U.S. to oppose Vietnamese autonomy.

  • U.S. Aid to France in the War Against the Vietminh: The U.S. financed most of the French war against the Vietminh.

The Korean War

  • Origins of the War: Both North and South Korea aimed to reunify the peninsula.

    • Kim Il Sung persuaded Stalin to approve the invasion of South Korea in June 1950.

  • Truman Commits U.S. Forces:

    • The UN Security Council authorized aid to South Korea.

    • Truman sent American troops, believing the Soviets orchestrated the attack.

    • MacArthur launched an amphibious landing, forcing the North Koreans to retreat.

  • Chinese Entry into the War: When Chinese troops entered North Korea, MacArthur advocated for bombing China.

  • Truman’s Firing of General MacArthur: MacArthur publicly criticized Truman's policies, leading to his dismissal.

  • Dispute over POWs: Many North Korean and Chinese prisoners of war refused repatriation, and the U.S. declined to return them.

  • Costs and Consequences of the War:

    • More than four million deaths occurred.

    • Presidential power expanded.

    • The stalemate contributed to Eisenhower's election.

  • Globalization of Containment:

    • Worldwide military containment became established U.S. policy.

    • Defense spending increased substantially.

Eisenhower, Dulles, and Unrelenting Cold War

  • John Foster Dulles: As Secretary of State, Dulles strongly promoted anti-communism.

    • He purged the State Department of specialists, including Asian experts, which negatively impacted American policy in Vietnam.

  • Eisenhower-Dulles Policies:

    • Key concepts: "Liberation," "massive retaliation," and the "New Look" military.

    • The U.S. practiced "brinkmanship," backed by increasing nuclear weapon stockpiles.

  • CIA as Foreign Policy Instrument: The CIA:

    • Funded foreign leaders

    • Subsidized foreign labor unions

    • Conducted "disinformation" campaigns

    • Launched covert operations to subvert Third World governments

  • Propaganda and Cultural Infiltration: The U.S. invested in radio broadcasts and other media to spread propaganda.

  • Hydrogen Bomb, Sputnik, and Missiles:

    • American development of the hydrogen bomb heightened tensions.

    • Soviet advances in missile technology prompted increased U.S. missile research.

  • Eisenhower’s Critique of Nuclear Arms: Eisenhower voiced concerns about the arms race.

  • Rebellion in Hungary: The U.S. could not intervene when Soviet troops suppressed a revolt in Hungary without risking full-scale war.

  • U-2 Incident: The Soviets withdrew from the 1960 Paris summit after the U.S. refused to apologize for U-2 spy missions.

  • Jinmen-Mazu Crisis: The Formosa Resolution of 1955 allowed the deployment of U.S. forces to defend Formosa (Taiwan), leading China to develop nuclear weapons by 1964.

  • “Japanese Miracle”: The U.S. rebuilt Japan as a defense against communist influence in Asia.

At Odds with the Third World

  • Interests in the Third World: Decolonization accelerated after 1945, leading both the U.S. and USSR to seek alliances with new nations.

  • Nonaligned Movement: Many Third World nations chose not to align with either side in the Cold War.

  • American Images of Third World Peoples: Americans often viewed Third World populations as emotional, irrational, and dependent.

  • Racism and Segregation as U.S. Handicaps: American racism damaged its efforts to gain allies in the Third World.

  • U.S. Hostility to Nationalist Revolution: The U.S. often perceived Third World revolutions as threats to American allies and investments.

  • Development and Modernization: The U.S. aimed to promote stability in developing nations through aid and directed propaganda to discourage radical ideologies and neutralism.

  • Third World Views of the United States: People in developing nations both envied and resented the U.S.

U.S. Interventions in the Third World

  • CIA in Guatemala: The CIA helped overthrow Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in 1951 due to the United Fruit Corporation's dissatisfaction with his land confiscation policies.

  • The Cuban Revolution and Fidel Castro:

    • Fidel Castro's overthrow of Fulgencio Batista led to a crisis.

    • Cuba's closer ties with the Soviets prompted Eisenhower to support an invasion by Cuban exiles.

  • Operation Bootstrap in Puerto Rico: This encouraged investment in Puerto Rico by U.S. corporations.

  • U.S. Interests in the Middle East: American policy focused on supporting Israel and protecting oil interests.

  • Suez Crisis:

    • Egypt nationalized the British-owned Suez Canal in 1956.

    • Israel, Britain, and France intervened, but the U.S. refused to support them.

  • Eisenhower Doctrine: The U.S. would intervenze in the Middle East if a government threatened by communism requested assistance.

  • Dien Bien Phu Crisis in Vietnam: The Vietminh surrounded French troops at Dien Bien Phu, leading to the end of the French war in Vietnam.

  • Geneva Accords:

    • Vietnam was divided, with a 1956 election planned to unify the country.

    • Ngo Dinh Diem refused to hold the election.

  • Backing the Diem Regime in South Vietnam: The U.S. supported a corrupt and repressive regime in South Vietnam.