World War I

Wilson was a new kind of president. He was a scholar and an idealist. Nowhere was this more apparent than in his international policies. He wanted to create a new world order governed by morality and idealism which he felt would help eliminate the violent selfish national interests that were pervading the world. To that end, his Secretary of State, William Bryan,  strongly believed that it was the US's religious duty to advance democracy and Christianity. Between 1913 and 1914 the US even had some successes. America helped negotiate a limited number of treaties where both sides pledged not to go to war over any disagreement for at least 12 months pending mediation by an international arbitration panel. Sadly many of these "agreements" were soon forgotten.  And soon Wilson and the world were about to encounter a war like no other. 

 

Americans were surprised by the outbreak of WWI, but they really should not have been. Europe had a long LONG history of inroad fighting over territory that had resulted in secret alliances and festering relationships. WWI began innocently enough. Austro-Hungary (a now-defunct nation that no longer exists) was by 1900 a large but very weak nation.  In 1908 they officially annexed the former Ottoman Territory of Bosnia which angered Serbia.  Adding to the confusion was that Austro-Hungary was allied with Germany and Russia was allied with Serbia.  Both Germany and Russia were not exactly each other’s biggest fans.

 

On June 28th, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the former Bosnian capital where he was assassinated by Serbian Nationalists. Austro-Hungary responded by issuing Serbia a series of 10 demands that they knew Serbia would be unable to honor. Austro-Hungary intended to encourage hostilities. At the same time, Russia began arming to aid its ally, Serbia. Soon all of Europe was picking sides with the. At the start of the war, the Triple Alliance/ Central Powers included Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Italy. The Triple Entente/ Allied Powers included France, Great Britain, and Russia. The Triple Alliance demanded that Russia stop mobilization. When she did not, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, and France on August 3rd.  Germany then activated a long-planned invasion of France by way of Belgium. Great Britain responded by declaring war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. Finally, the rest of Europe and Asia joined in the free-for-all!

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WWI was a new type of war. What does that mean? Well for starters, previously there was an unspoken agreement between combatants that they would limit attacks to other combatants. In other words, they would avoid killing civilians. Each side also tried to limit casualties and restrict destruction to smaller areas. This strategy changed during WWI. Now, in what has come to be known as Total War, both sides tried to do as much damage as possible to the other. If this included hurting and killing civilians who were aiding the war effort and causing massive amounts of damage then so be it. Thus, the goal of Total War was to destroy your enemy and her capacity to make war. In the end, this ultimately resulted in catastrophic carnage. This is reflected in  WWI’s end tallies including:

  • 9 million soldiers died

  • 15 million wounded

  • 3 million new widows

  • 6 million new orphans

 

Total War was not only calculated to bring the enemy to her knees as quickly as possible but it was also made possible by brand new never before used military technology including the machine gun, high-velocity rifles, military airplanes, flame throwers, land mines, long-range artillery, armored tanks, among a host of other specialized killing machines. With the advent of mechanization, winning wars was no longer dependent upon skillful maneuvering or superior leadership. Instead, wars were won using sheer brute force and being able to outlast your enemy. 

 

Despite her brief and limited attempts at imperialism, America had long stayed out of European problems. This was in part due to her history (G. Washington in his farewell speech reminded Americans to stay out of European Entanglements) and partly because she did not need to interfere. Remember America had always had the luxury of two vast oceans and two friendly and relatively weak neighbors. This meant that up until the 21st century America had never had to worry about being invaded. Thus, she was content to worry about national concerns. By 1900 though things were beginning to change including:

  • Americans Expanding Markets- As America became more industrialized she needed foreign markets to help maintain her capitalist growth.

  • New Technologies- Up until 1900 it had taken a few weeks or more for European news and travelers to reach American shores and visa versa. However, with the advent of steam-powered ships and the transatlantic cable, America had become ever closer to Europe.

  • Wilson’s Naivety - Remember that Wilson felt that it was his duty to impose standards for proper conduct on renegade nations but also remember that he had next to no experience in dealing with international issues. 

 

Even though America's interest in Europe had grown, at the start of WWI the US was still very hesitant to enter into foreign affairs. Wilson said that Americans should remain "neutral in thought and action. "It didn’t help that Public Opinion was very divided.  This was in part due to past loyalties and the US's strong tie to England but also to the fact that more than 1/3 of Americans were first or second-generation immigrants who supported both the Central Powers and Allied Powers.  However, Neutrality was easier said than done. Neither of the two warring parties particularly liked that the US was trading with their enemy. Soon America found herself between a rock and a hard place.

 

As the war progressed, American popular opinion began to shift for three reasons:

  • Economic- The allies increasingly needed goods and loans which was very good for the US economy.

  • Military- The Central Powers were not pleased with increased trade with her enemies and she soon began attacking neutral US transport ships. On Aug. 6, 1914, the US reminded the Germans to respect Neutral nations. Germany responded by increasing military attacks on US ships crossing through the North Sea.  Soon US merchant ships were being attacked by German U-boats.

  • Public Shift- The British Propaganda Machine had an undue influence on America. The British often portrayed their enemy as barbaric and beastlike. In some cases, the Brits went so far as to accuse the Germans of eating babies!

 

Despite these shifts, the US continued to stay neutral. Tensions came to a head when Germans attacked the Lusitania, a passenger ship on its way to England, on May 7, 1915, resulting in 128 American deaths. Quickly there was a public outcry and Wilson asked the Germans to abandon their unrestricted U-boat War against merchant ships and to pay reparations for damages.   The Germans responded by stating the Lusitania was armed (which was a lie) and that she was carrying weapons (which was a truth). The Germans signed the Lusitania Note but in March of 1916, the Germans attacked the French Vessel the Sussex. Two Americans died. Wilson again renewed pressure on the Germans to stop their naval attacks. Following the sinking of the Lusitania and the Sussex neutrality became more difficult. Although Wilson's slogan in the 1916 election was "he kept us out of war." The reality was the public was inching ever closer to war, but still, the US held steadfast in not entering the conflict. 

 

Following his election, Wilson began preaching "preparedness” publicly, while privately he began devising a build-up plan for the War and Naval Departments. Despite growing public support, Wilson still hesitated to commit the US to the European War Effort. That would change and America entered World War I for the following:

 

  • Unrestricted U-Boat War - In 1917 the Germans declared an unrestricted U-boat war against all merchant ships.

  • Zimmerman Telegraphy- In 1917 a letter from the German Foreign Minister to the Mexican Government was intercepted by the US. In this letter, the Germans offered to return portions of the territory Mexico had lost to the US in exchange for Mexican support.

  • Russian Revolution- In 1917 the Russian Revolution replaced the Czarist government. Up until this point the US had been hesitant to ally with what they perceived to be a corrupt government. With the removal of the Czar, this was no longer a problem. Later this alliance was shattered when Lenin took over the Russian government.

  • German Power- Thanks to British propaganda among other things, the US was afraid of a German world power.

  • Wilson's Justification- Wilson believed his re-election was a referendum on his belief in the new world order. He believed the US needed to engage in what he believed was a struggle between democratic ideals and autocratic tyranny. His greatest hope was that after WWI that war would cease to exist.

 

 

America declared war on April 11, 1917.  Almost three years after the war had begun. But she still faced two small problems- her military forces (both Army and Navy) were too small and she had no money in her military budget. Before the war, the entire US budget was $1 Billion by the end of the war the government had appropriated $32 Billion! She did this through:

  • Liberty Bonds- These Bonds were loans provided by the public. By using elaborate patriotic advertising the government was able to gather $23 Billion.

  • Other monies are gathered through excess profits of corporations as well as steeply graduated income and inheritance taxes. Thanks to fundraising America sent her first troops over three months after declaring war.

 

To facilitate mobilization the government created the following boards and government acts:

  • Army Appropriations Act (1916)- This act created the Council of National Defense which in turn created local defense councils in every state. This soon proved unwieldy.

  • Food Administration-  This board oversaw increased agricultural production while decreasing civilian food consumption to ensure the troops were well-fed. This included catchy advertising such as "meatless Tuesdays" and the planting of Victory Gardens.

  • War Boards- These boards divided up the economy into sectors with each being overseen by a planning body.

  • War Industries Board- This board coordinated government purchases of military supplies and successfully was able to decide which factories to convert to production of war materials as well as set price caps for goods.

 

As industrial production increased and a large number of able-bodied men joined the military the labor shortage provided exciting new opportunities for previously overlooked workers including African Americans and Women. It also allowed for the creation of the National War Labor Board which was created to be the final mediator for labor disputes. Because the US feared a strike might be devastating to the war effort, workers were finally able to secure 8-hour workdays, somewhat equal pay, and collective bargaining rights!

Even though America was more united when it came to fighting the war, the Government was still concerned about subversive individuals. To that end, the national government created:

  • Committee on Public Information supervised the distribution of 75 million pieces of printed material and controlled much of the information provided to news outlets. They also encouraged newspapers to use self-censorship by only printing the government-authorized story. Strangely most complied. By 1918 US newspapers were even publishing government-distributed posters showing Germans as monsters and murderers. This group also published advertisements asking citizens to report any evidence of disloyalty, pessimism, or yearnings for peace by their friends and neighbors to the authorities!

  • The Espionage Act (1917) gave the Government new tools to deal with spying, sabotage, or obstruction of the war efforts, which included fines of up to $10,000 and 20 years in prison.

  •  Sedition Act (1918) expanded the Espionage Act to make it illegal to express ANY opposition to the war including obstructing government sale of war bonds advocating cutbacks in production, or for writing or printing anything "disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive" about American Government, Constitution or US  Military. 

 

Despite the push to build up the war effort, the US continued to have a limited role in the hostilities until 1918. However, when they did finally enter the war effort, they could not have done so at a better time. By 1917 the Allies were desperate. The Russians had become involved in their own Bolshevik Revolution and had pulled out of the war altogether, which meant that Germany could now turn all of their war efforts towards the British. By the Spring of 1918 the US, under the leadership of General Pershing, joined in the efforts to save France. Eight months later the war was over! The Armistice was signed at 11 AM, November 11TH. In other words, the 11th hour, of the 11th day of the 11th month. Have you ever wondered why we celebrate Veterans Day on Nov. 11th? 

Even before the US fully entered into WWI, Wilson was also masterminding his great peace plan which became known to the world as the 14 points plan. Of all fourteen points, for this class, we will only talk about the most important including:

 

  • Point 1- Open rather than hidden allies

  • Point 2- Freedom of navigation and respecting the neutrality of the seas

  • Point 3- Removal of international trade barriers

  • Point 4- Reduction of national armaments

  • Point 5 – Reconfiguration of European colonial empires.

  • Points 6-13- Focused on specific post-war national boundaries

  • Point 14- Created of the League of Nations to protect global peace

 

Despite his well-formulated plan, when Wilson left for the peace conference he faced many difficulties. He was the first-ever president to leave the US for an extended period- 6 months to be exact- and he lost touch with what Americans wanted. At home, the US faced midterm elections and the Democrats lost weakening Wilson in the process. When Wilson returned home he failed to work with the Republicans now in control. Wilson insisted on the League of Nations as the US's top priority.

 

Wilson was not the only one facing difficulties. The Big Four- Great Britain, France, Italy, and the US- all showed up to the peace talks with divided and conflicting goals. Great Britain and France wanted to make Germany pay by enacting extreme reparations which would keep Germany impoverished with a weak government. They also requested Germany's best and most lucrative mining territory be temporarily given to France and finally broke up the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires. Wilson wanted to create a utopian world. Italy wanted land.

 

When Wilson finally returned home to present the 14-point plan to Congress he was met with a disgruntled public and an unmoving Republican Congress both of which felt that Wilson was too naïve and idealistic.  When the Republican Congress pushed for compromise on the peace treaty, Wilson refused and took the issue directly to the people via a national road trip. On October 2nd, 1919 he suffered a massive stroke that left him paralyzed for the rest of his life. In the end, the US did not ratify the League of Nations. 

 

Following the end of WWI, the US had problems of its own. She was faced with a catastrophic Spanish Flu (1918) pandemic that resulted in 100 million deaths worldwide and 675,000 in the US. It was so bad that many towns ran out of coffins.  She faced violent race riots as African Americans who had gained jobs and headway during the war lost their positions. She faced labor riots due to the loss of previous Union gains. She faced the Red Scare which led to the rounding up of at least 40 recent Russian Immigrants who were deported, an additional 450 aliens and radicals were arrested by Federal Agents during city raids, and finally, an additional 5,000 individuals were also arrested. In the end, the Red Scare resulted in one of the largest violations of Civil Liberties in American History.