Vietnam War Notes

Early Involvement and Kennedy's Decisions

The Vietnam War is described as a mix of scenery and conflict.
President Kennedy increased aid to Vietnam.
By the end of Kennedy's time in office, the number of advisors in Vietnam increased from 600 to over 16,000.
Kennedy made a command decision to prevent South Vietnam from falling to communism.
Communist subversion was persistent in Southeast Asia.
South Vietnam sought help to stop North Vietnamese aggression.
The country was split into North and South Vietnam in the late 1950s during Eisenhower's administration.
The U.S. aimed to protect South Vietnam from a communist takeover.

Cold War Context and Domino Theory

North Vietnamese communists believed in nationalism and uniting the country.
The "Cold War conspiracy" was the idea that if Vietnam fell to communism, all of Southeast Asia would follow, known as the domino theory.
The potential fall of South Vietnam was seen as having severe repercussions for other Southeast Asian countries.

Early Military Engagements and Challenges

On January 2, 1963, South Vietnamese troops surprised a Viet Cong battalion at Ap Bac.
Five American helicopters were shot down, and three American advisers were killed.
63 South Vietnamese soldiers died, some from friendly fire.
U.S. military advisers were involved in combat missions.
The South Vietnamese army struggled against the Viet Cong's guerrilla warfare tactics, being trained for conventional war instead.
Doubts grew about the effectiveness of the advisory effort.

The Buddhist Crisis

The war in Vietnam became a fight on two fronts: against the Viet Cong and against a revolt by the Buddhist majority.
The Buddhist majority viewed President Diem as a tyrant.
Diem, a Western-educated Catholic, led the South Vietnamese government.
Diem's government was seen as corrupt and dictatorial.
The Catholic government imposed itself on the Buddhist majority, leading to persecution.
Soldiers and police suppressed demonstrations, resulting in casualties.
The U.S. government debated whether to continue supporting Diem.

Overthrow of Diem's Regime

Discussions about toppling Diem's regime occurred within the CIA and Pentagon in the summer of 1963.
The U.S. government faced a dilemma of protecting the area against communism while dealing with problematic governments.
The U.S. government acknowledged conflicting reports about the CIA's activities.
The South Vietnamese government was overthrown by a military coup.
President Diem was shot and killed by South Vietnamese generals.
The U.S. had prior knowledge and understanding of the coup.

Kennedy's Reaction and Responsibility

After Diem's assassination, Kennedy realized the U.S. had made a mistake.
Kennedy felt responsible for the coup and was shocked by Diem's death.
The U.S. was seen as owning the situation after Diem's assassination.

Johnson's Approach and McNamara's Role

President Johnson felt that continuity in government was essential after Kennedy's assassination.
Johnson aimed to translate Kennedy's ideas into action.
Reports of intense fighting in Vietnam continued.
Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, known for his analytical methods, aimed to manage the war effectively and eliminate waste.
The U.S. increased the number of combat-ready army divisions by 45%.
McNamara publicly expressed confidence in prevailing, but privately worried about the prospects.
McNamara recognized the need for a strong government in Saigon to fight the communists effectively.

Johnson's Doubts and Conventional Warfare

Johnson expressed concerns about the war's worth and the difficulty of withdrawing.
There were fears of communism spreading if the U.S. retreated.
The war was described as a modern but different kind of conflict.
The U.S. aimed to advise and support Vietnamese allies.
Johnson's plan for the war was seen as a conventional approach to an unconventional conflict.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

In August 1964, an incident occurred in the Tonkin Gulf involving North Vietnamese PT boats and the USS Maddox.
The attack was possibly provoked by covert U.S. actions against North Vietnam.
Conflicting reports emerged about a second naval combat action in the Tonkin Gulf.
Evidence suggested the second incident didn't happen, but the Johnson administration dismissed it.
Political pressure to appear strong against communist aggression influenced the administration's response.
Johnson ordered military action in response to the alleged attacks.
Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, granting Johnson broad power to use military force.
The resolution marked the beginning of the American air assault on North Vietnam.

Escalation and Ground Troops

Johnson was elected president and faced increasing pressure regarding Vietnam.
Communist Viet Cong guerrillas attacked an American helicopter base, resulting in casualties.
Johnson refused to be the president who lost Southeast Asia, leading to deeper involvement.
Marines were deployed, a decision that Johnson found difficult but necessary due to pressure from military leaders.

Operation Rolling Thunder

In early 1965, Operation Rolling Thunder, a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam, was launched.
The emphasis was on destroying strategic enemy targets to cut off supplies to the Viet Cong.
Initially, ground troops were sent to protect airfields, but their role expanded.
The U.S. was perceived as backing into the war without fully understanding it.

Challenges in the Jungle

Soldiers encountered occasional snipers in the jungle.
The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese did not adhere to conventional warfare rules.
The enemy was often invisible, making combat difficult.
Combat aroused intense emotions and revealed both the best and worst aspects of human nature.

Treatment of Civilians

The rule of thumb was to distrust everyone, regardless of age or sex.
In response to sniper fire, Americans sometimes used artillery or airstrikes on entire villages.
The U.S. was accused of killing a large number of civilians annually.
There were perceptions that the U.S. was destroying the country it was supposed to be saving.

Troop Increase and Draft

Success in Vietnam remained elusive, leading to requests for more troops.
The U.S. increased its fighting strength from 75,000 to 125,000 men.
The monthly draft call was raised from 17,000 to 35,000 per month.

Cam Ne Incident

Marines were accused of burning down houses in Cam Ne Village.
The operation resulted in casualties, including wounded women and a killed baby.
The incident raised questions about whether the U.S. was truly on the side of the Vietnamese people.

Impact of Television Coverage

Television coverage of the Vietnam War showed a different side of America, one that committed atrocities.
President Johnson reportedly criticized CBS for its negative coverage of the war.

Battle of Ia Drang Valley

The Battle of Ia Drang Valley was a significant engagement involving American troops and North Vietnamese soldiers.
The battle resulted in heavy casualties on both sides.
The military viewed it as a victory, believing they could inflict enough casualties to win.
Questions arose about whether the American public was prepared to sustain more casualties.

Pacification Efforts and Contradictions

Efforts were made to protect and assist Vietnamese villagers.
The televising of the war created a split-screen reality, with official stories of success juxtaposed against images of body bags.

Moral Dilemmas and Protest

Marine Colonel Michael Yunk refused to order an air attack on a village because of the presence of women and children.
Casualties led to growing public opposition to the war.
Dissent spread across college campuses.
Protests, including draft card burnings, occurred.
The draft forced young men to make difficult choices.
People attempted to avoid the draft through various means, including physical mutilation and claiming homosexuality.
Deferments for college students created inequalities in who was drafted.
Generational divides emerged regarding the war.

Anti-War Movement and Political Pressure

Anti-war rallies took place, including a large demonstration at the Washington Monument.
Some protesters expressed their refusal to fight in Vietnam.
A substantial number of Americans continued to support the war.
Johnson faced increasing pressure from both war hawks and doves.
Bombing in the North was temporarily halted in hopes of peace talks, but no progress was made.

Legal and Ethical Concerns

Legal experts argued that the U.S. involvement in Vietnam violated international law and the U.S. Constitution.
Congress struggled to obtain information about the war.
Fulbright hearings raised serious questions about the war.

Troop Morale and Conditions

As the war dragged on, troop morale declined.
Soldiers faced harsh conditions, including extreme heat, lack of sleep, and diseases.

Distrust and Misinformation

Soldiers began to distrust their leaders, questioning their honesty and knowledge.

Hill 937 (Hamburger Hill)

Alpha Company reached Hill 937 after heavy fighting.
The hill was taken and abandoned multiple times by American forces.
The battle for the hill resulted in significant casualties and had a negative impact on morale.

Loss and Frustration

Soldiers experienced the loss of friends and struggled to cope with the trauma.
Women protested at the Pentagon, demanding an end to the war.

Attrition Strategy and Public Opinion

The U.S. pursued a strategy of attrition, but public opinion turned against the war.

Division and Protest

The Vietnam War became the most divisive conflict in American history in a hundred years.
Protests against the war grew in scale and intensity.

McNamara's Departure

Robert McNamara, who had managed the war since 1961, left his position as Secretary of Defense.
He was personally tormented by the war.

Tet Offensive

The Tet Offensive was a major Viet Cong offensive that caught the Americans and South Vietnamese by surprise.
It exposed the tenuousness of the U.S. position.

Cronkite's Assessment and Johnson's Decision

Walter Cronkite's assessment that the war would end in a stalemate had a significant impact.
Lyndon Johnson realized he had lost control of the war.

Johnson's Withdrawal

Johnson decided not to seek reelection, recognizing the divisive nature of the war.

Conclusion

The Vietnam War was described as a tragic comedy of errors.
Johnson's legacy was overshadowed by the war, despite his achievements in other areas.