Sociology: Crime and Deviance

Chapter 7: Sociology of Deviance and Crime

Learning Objectives

  • Distinguish crime from deviance: Understanding the nuanced definitions and contexts of both concepts.

  • Define and measure crime: Exploring the methodologies and challenges in quantifying crime rates.

  • Compare and contrast major sociological explanations of deviance and crime: Discussing various theoretical frameworks.

  • Recognize principal trends in social control and regulation: Identifying the evolving nature of societal responses to deviance.

  • Identify rationales for alternatives to imprisonment: Delving into other forms of punishment and societal responses to crime.

The Social Definition of Deviance and Crime

Norms and Deviance

  • Varied Norms: Norms differ across cultures and social contexts, making deviance relative.

    • Example: What is considered normal in one culture may be viewed as deviant in another.

  • Relativity of Deviance:

    • No act is inherently deviant; it is defined as deviant based on societal reactions.

    • From a sociological aspect, everyone may be considered deviant under certain circumstances.

Definitions of Deviance and Crime

  • Deviance: Occurs when an individual violates a social norm, and this violation is recognized by others as deviate behavior.

  • Crime: A type of deviance that is legally defined as being against the law.

    • Laws are norms that are formalized and enforced by governmental authorities.

Sanctions

  • Informal Punishment: Mild sanctions that arise during personal interactions, outside of the judicial system, such as social stigma.

    • Stigma: A negative social label that distinguishes an individual for behavior deemed unacceptable.

  • Formal Punishment: Involves judicial penalties for legal infractions, executed by the state.

Types of Deviance and Crime

General Classifications

  • Social Diversions: Minor acts viewed as relatively harmless; responses often include humor or disapproval.

  • Social Deviations: Non-criminal behaviors that deviate from norms and are subject to official regulation; public perception of harm is divided.

Serious Criminal Classifications

  • Conflict Crimes: Illegal acts that some view as harmful while others see them as acceptable.

    • These acts are punishable by the criminal justice system.

  • Consensus Crimes: Those acts broadly recognized as inherently harmful and deserving of severe punishment; consensus on their negative impact is widespread.

Variability in Deviance and Crime

  • Deviance and crime are assessed on:

    1. Severity of social response: Varies across acts and situations.

    2. Perceived harmfulness: Differentiating between actual harm versus perceived impact.

    3. Degree of public agreement: Consensus or dissent regarding the act's classification as deviant or criminal.

Measuring Crime

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Survey

  • Established as a primary source of crime statistics since 1962, relying on data from police detachments.

  • Shortcomings:

    1. Many crimes, especially victimless acts, are not reported to authorities.

    2. Decisions made by the public and authorities influence what is reported.

Alternative Measurement Methods

  • Self-Report Surveys: Collecting data where individuals disclose involvement in criminal activities, either as victims or perpetrators.

  • Victimization Surveys: Asking individuals if they have experienced crimes, capturing data on unreported victims.

Trends in Criminal Activities

Declining Crime Rates Explanations

  1. Enhanced law enforcement capabilities due to larger and better-trained police forces.

  2. Changes in demographics; specifically, an aging population leading to fewer younger individuals most prone to crime.

  3. Favorable economic conditions correlated with a decline in crime metrics.

  4. Societal changes, such as the legalization of abortion, which some theorize influenced crime rates.

Criminal Profiles

  • Criminal Courts in 2013-14:

    • Adult Cases: Males comprised 80% of accused; females made up 20%.

    • Youth Courts: Males represented 74%; females accounted for 26%.

    • Age Factor: The 15 to 24 age cohort exhibited the highest propensity for crime.

Race, Ethnicity, and Incarceration

Overrepresentation Factors in Indigenous Populations

  1. Poverty prevalence in affected communities.

  2. A tendency to commit more visible street crimes.

  3. Discrimination within the criminal justice system.

  4. Cultural disruption due to increased contact with Western societal norms.

Explaining Deviance and Crime

Symbolic Interactionist Approaches

  • Howard S. Becker's Model:

    • Three-Stage Learning Process of Deviance:

      1. Learning to smoke to achieve intended effects.

      2. Recognizing drug effects and linking them to use.

      3. Learning to enjoy the sensations produced.

Labelling Theory

  • Emphasizes that deviance is more about societal reactions than the act itself.

    • Labels like “deviant” or “criminal” are not assigned automatically; societal perceptions play a significant role.

Functionalist Explanations

  • Emile Durkheim: Argued that deviance serves several societal functions:

    • Opportunity to condemn and punish norms violations.

    • Reminds society of common values and morals.

    • Clarifies moral boundaries and can stimulate social solidarity.

    • May lead to positive social changes.

Merton’s Strain Theory

  • Suggests that societal structures can create strain, leading individuals towards deviance when legitimate means fail.

Functionalist Perspectives on Subculture

  • Defines subculture as a distinct set of norms and values. Deviants may adhere strictly to their subculture norms while deviating from mainstream values.

  • Often results in misunderstanding across cultural lines.

Crime and Class Relationships

  • Criticism that functionalist theories often exaggerate the link between crime and lower socio-economic classes.

  • Observations suggest a less significant correlation.

Conflict Theories

  • The rich and powerful impose deviant labels on others, protecting their interests and often eluding punishment.

    • Power used to perpetuate privilege and social order.

    • The significant disparity between the power dynamics of different socio-economic classes.

Control Theory (Hirschi)

  • Proposes that the potential rewards of crime are so compelling that nearly everyone would engage in it if they could escape consequences.

  • Four Types of Social Control:

    1. Attachments to respectable role models.

    2. Access to legitimate opportunities (education and employment).

    3. Engagement in conventional institutions (family, religion, etc.).

    4. Endorsement of traditional values and moral beliefs.

Feminist Contributions to Understanding Crime

  • Gender power dynamics shape definitions of crime, law framing, and detection.

  • Relative powerlessness puts women at a higher risk of being victimized.

Intersectionality in Crime and Deviance

  • Examines how gender, race, social class, and sexuality interact to create unique outcomes in health, education, and crime outcomes.

Social Control and Regulation

Definition of Social Control

  • Social control refers to mechanisms that regulate thought, emotion, appearance, and behavior.

    • Internal Social Control: Regulates socialization processes, dissuading deviance through internalized norms.

    • External Social Control: Imposes formal punishments and rewards to maintain social order.

Historical Trends in Social Control

  • Preindustrial Societies: Featured high conformity and strict social control measures.

  • Industrial Societies: Show reduced conformity, leading to less stringent controls.

Contemporary Views on Social Control Trends

  • Despite increasing individuality and deviance, social control may have intensified, tied to capitalist growth and the state's influence.

  • Panopticon: A prison design concept where inmates are observed without knowledge, representing modern surveillance culture.

Surveillance Society

  • All-encompassing technological surveillance methods utilized to maximize social regulation.

Medicalization of Deviance

  • Traditional moral judgments associated with deviant behaviors increasingly framed as medical conditions.

  • Shifts in definitions lead to seeing deviance as less about choice and more about health.

Growing Mental Health Diagnostics

  • From one recognized mental disorder in the mid-nineteenth century to 294 listed in the DSM-5 as of 2013.

  • 1 in 3 Canadians are expected to face mental health issues during their lifetime.

Rationale for Incarceration

  1. Rehabilitation: Offering opportunities for change and skill development.

  2. Deterrence: Discouraging future crimes through fear of punishment.

  3. Revenge: Serving justice for crimes committed.

  4. Incapacitation: Removing dangerous individuals from society.

  • Canada’s incarceration rate is lower than the US but higher than many Western European nations.

Alternative Forms of Punishment

  1. Death Penalty: Last executed in Canada in 1962 and abolished in 1976; debates continue about its reintroduction, especially among the public with rising support.

  2. Rehabilitation: Focus on decreasing recidivism through diverse programs.

  3. Decriminalization and Legalization:

    • Decriminalization: Allowing alternative penalties other than imprisonment.

    • Legalization: Removing legal prohibitions on currently illegal acts to manage societal impacts.

  4. Diversion and Restorative Justice: Guiding offenders away from the prison system toward rehabilitation, emphasizing victim reconciliation.

Additional Contextual Statistics

  • Opioid-Related Deaths in Canada and the implications for social policies and public health.