cc psych

Nature AND Nurture: Overarching Themes

  • Nature: Biological or genetic influences on behavior.

    • Examples: Hormonal differences (testosterone and aggression), genetic traits like lactase persistence.

    • Importance: Nature often sets the "baseline" (e.g., sex differences in strength, reproduction).

  • Nurture: Environmental, cultural, and social influences on behavior.

    • Examples: Gender role socialization, cultural norms around dating and health behaviors.

    • Importance: Culture modifies, reinforces, or reshapes biological predispositions.

Culture, Sex, and Gender

  • Key Concepts:

    • Sex: Biological traits distinguishing males and females (e.g., anatomy, hormones).

    • Gender: Cultural expectations for behaviors based on sex.

    • Gender Roles: Culturally defined expectations (e.g., men as providers, women as caregivers).

    • Gender Identity: Personal understanding and expression of gender.

  • Nature:

    • Biological sex differences (e.g., reproductive capabilities).

    • Testosterone levels linked to aggression and dominance.

    • Universal features like parental investment and division of labor stem from biological needs (e.g., childbirth care by women).

  • Nurture:

    • Gender roles shaped by social expectations.

    • Cultures vary in masculinity (emphasis on traditional roles) vs. femininity (emphasis on equality and nurturing).

    • Increasing recognition of nonbinary identities and "third gender" categories in many cultures (e.g., India, Germany).

  • Examples:

    • Tight, sedentary societies foster distinct gender roles; nomadic ones have more flexibility.

    • Cultural practices like female circumcision reflect complex interplay of tradition and gender expectations.

Defining Sex and Gender

  • Sex: Biological differences between male and female, including physical and reproductive distinctions.

  • Sex Roles: Behaviors linked to biological differences (e.g., reproduction-related).

  • Gender: Behaviors and traits deemed appropriate by culture for each sex.

  • Gender Roles: Adoption of gender-specific behaviors based on cultural norms.

  • Biological sex isn’t binary:

    • Examples: 5α-Reductase deficiency, Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS).

Cultural Influences on Gender and Sex

  • Ethnocentrism: Tendency to view other cultures through the lens of one's own, shaping judgments of "right" and "wrong."

  • Son Preference: Cultural bias favoring male children (e.g., in South Asia, Northern Africa).

  • Economic Power & Discrimination:

    • Gender pay gaps globally.

    • The “feminization of poverty.”

  • Gender Stereotypes: Universal and culturally specific perceptions (e.g., men as strong and active, women as nurturing and passive).

  • Division of Labor: Historical and cultural divisions based on physical and reproductive roles.

Ethical Perspectives

  • Cultural Relativism vs. Universal Rights:

    • Moral values vary by culture, but certain practices (e.g., sex-selective abortion) prompt global ethical debates.

  • Naturalistic Fallacy: Avoiding conclusions that "what is" should dictate "what ought to be."

Dating & Mating

  • Nature:

    • Evolutionary Influences:

      • Men prioritize physical attractiveness (signals fertility); women prioritize resources (signals ability to provide).

      • Universal attraction to symmetry and certain body ratios (e.g., waist-to-hip ratio).

    • Hormones (e.g., oxytocin) influence attachment and bonding.

  • Nurture:

    • Cultural norms shape dating preferences:

      • Individualistic cultures: Emphasize love and personal fulfillment in relationships.

      • Collectivistic cultures: Prioritize family and societal approval (e.g., arranged marriages).

    • Romantic attachment styles vary by culture:

      • High stress → insecure attachment, shorter-term mating strategies.

      • Low stress → secure attachment, long-term relationships.

  • Examples:

    • Chastity highly valued in many non-Western cultures but less so in individualistic ones.

    • Homosexuality more accepted in affluent, industrialized societies.

    • Norms around mate choice influenced by pathogen prevalence (e.g., preference for masculinity).

Mating & Dating: Evolutionary and Cultural Dynamics

  • Evolutionary Theory: Mate choice tied to reproductive success.

    • Men prioritize fertility (younger women); women prioritize resources (older, higher-status men).

    • Universal patterns: Men's preference for symmetry and waist-to-hip ratio (0.7 ideal).

  • Cultural Variation:

    • Body weight preferences differ across societies and historical periods.

    • Reliability of food supply affects attractiveness ideals.

  • Romantic Love:

    • Evolutionary adaptation for pair-bonding and cooperative breeding.

    • Universal in expression but not necessarily in marriage systems.

Marriage Systems

  • Arranged Marriages: Common in extended family systems; often evolve into love-based relationships.

  • Polygamy (Polygyny):

    • More common in societies with wealth inequality.

    • Associated with larger age gaps and different cultural implications.

Gender Differences in Behavior

  • Aggression: Men typically more aggressive across cultures; influenced by societal norms.

  • Preferences:

    • Men favor physical attractiveness; women favor social status and financial prospects.

    • Contexts like pathogen load influence preference for masculine traits. 

Culture and Health

  • Key Concepts:

    • Subjective Well-Being (SWB): Higher SWB correlates with better health outcomes (e.g., fewer heart attacks).

    • SES and Health: Low socioeconomic status linked to poor health due to stress, limited resources, and unhealthy habits.

  • Nature:

    • Genetic predispositions to diseases (e.g., resistance to malaria in some ethnic groups).

    • Biological differences in life expectancy (e.g., women typically live longer).

  • Nurture:

    • Cultural factors like diet, lifestyle, and attitudes towards healthcare significantly impact health outcomes.

    • Tight, collectivistic cultures may delay seeking help for medical issues (e.g., heart attacks in Japan).

  • Examples:

    • U.S.: High rates of obesity linked to portion sizes and sedentary lifestyle.

    • Pathogen Prevalence Hypothesis: Regions with high pathogen loads have stricter social norms to reduce disease spread.

Culture and Health

  • Health Indicators:

    • Life Expectancy: Varies by wealth, resources, and societal adversity.

    • Infant Mortality: Higher in the U.S. compared to other industrialized nations; disparities exist among ethnic groups.

    • Subjective Well-Being (SWB): Linked to health benefits (e.g., stronger immune systems, fewer heart attacks). Predictors include material wealth, autonomy, and social connections.

  • Cultural Dimensions and Diseases:

    • Japanese CHD Study: Lower rates in Japan, higher in U.S., attributed to diet and culture.

    • Collectivistic cultures show delayed help-seeking for heart attacks but have lower disease rates.

Social and Environmental Health Factors

  • Obesity:

    • Cultural differences in diet, activity levels, and lifestyle.

    • U.S. has high rates due to portion sizes, sedentary behavior, and fast-food culture.

  • Height: Correlated with economic wealth and diet quality during growth periods.

  • SES and Health:

    • Lower SES linked to poor health outcomes due to stress, limited control, and unhealthy habits.

    • Whitehall Study: Showed higher mortality rates in lower job grades despite controlling for risk factors.

Stress and Acculturation

  • Stress:

    • Caused by lack of control (e.g., lower SES or strict hierarchies in primates).

    • Affects immune system and increases health-compromising behaviors.

  • Acculturation:

    • Immigrant paradox: Immigrants often fare better health-wise despite hardships.

    • Acculturation can negatively affect health through stress and lifestyle changes.

Cultural Neuroscience

  • Key Concepts:

    • Examines how culture interacts with brain function and structure.

    • Tools: fMRI, EEG, and genetic studies.

    • Focuses on cultural variation in cognitive processes and emotional responses.

  • Nature:

    • Genes shape baseline brain function (e.g., dopamine receptors influencing novelty-seeking).

    • Universal brain mechanisms for language, perception, and emotion.

  • Nurture:

    • Cultural practices affect brain plasticity (e.g., bilingualism shaping brain regions related to language).

    • Variability in neural responses to social norms and stress (e.g., collectivistic cultures show heightened neural sensitivity to group norms).

  • Examples:

    • Serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR): Short allele linked to collectivism and heightened stress response.

    • Oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR): Associated with social sensitivity and norm adherence.

Cultural Neuroscience

  • Key Goals:

    • Explore how culture shapes brain and behavior.

    • Study tools include fMRI, EEG, and genetic research.

  • Challenges:

    • Bias in neuroscience research (e.g., WEIRD populations, calibration issues).

    • Cultural differences in brain imaging interpretations.

Gene-Culture Coevolution

  • Lactase Persistence:

    • Evolved with pastoralism; allows adults to digest milk.

    • Genetic variations spread through positive and negative selection.

  • Rice Farming in China:

    • Associated with genetic adaptations (e.g., alcohol intolerance, polygenic traits like height).

  • Gene x Culture Interactions:

    • Genes can have different effects in varied cultural contexts (e.g., serotonin transporter gene and collectivism).

  • Epigenetics:

    • Environmental factors, like diet, can modify gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.

Key Examples of Gene-Culture Interactions

  • Dopamine D4 Receptor (DRD4):

    • Associated with novelty-seeking behavior; prevalent in migratory populations.

  • Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR):

    • May influence social sensitivity, with different cultural norms shaping expression.

  • Serotonin Transporter Gene (5-HTTLPR):

    • Short allele linked to collectivist cultures and increased stress response.

Mental Health and Treatment

  • Nature:

    • Genetic predispositions influence susceptibility to mental health issues (e.g., depression, anxiety).

    • Epigenetics: Environmental factors can "switch on" or suppress certain genes (e.g., stress and obesity).

  • Nurture:

    • Stigma and cultural norms influence mental health outcomes and willingness to seek treatment.

    • Immigrant paradox: Immigrants often have better mental health despite acculturation stress.

    • Individualistic cultures: Open discussions about mental health (e.g., talk therapy).

    • Collectivistic cultures: Focus on family and group-based support.

  • Examples:

    • Cultural mismatch between personal and societal values creates stress (e.g., lower SWB in low-SES individuals).

    • Gender-nonconforming individuals face more stress in societies with greater gender inequality.