Semester 1: Foundations of Psychology (PSY01C101) Exam Practice Flashcards

Module III: Attention and Perception (25 Marks)

  • The Core of Attention

    • Definition: Attention is defined as the cognitive and perceptual process of selectively concentrating on specific environmental stimuli while intentionally ignoring others. It is characterized as a process rather than a final product.
    • Focus vs. Margin: The field of human experience is divided into two distinct areas:
      • Focus: Stimuli that are perceived clearly and occupy the center of consciousness.
      • Margin/Fringe: Stimuli that are perceived dimly or vaguely on the periphery of consciousness.
    • Key Attention Phenomena:
      • Span of Attention: Refers to the maximum number of separate objects or items that an individual can clearly grasp in a single, brief presentation. It is measured using an apparatus known as a Tachistoscope, which was manufactured by Hamilton and first utilized by Whipple.
      • Miller's Magical Number: Proposed by George Miller in 1956, the average span of attention is strictly limited to 7±27 \pm 2 items.
      • Division of Attention: The capacity for simultaneous processing of multiple information sources to perform more than one task at once.
      • Distraction of Attention: Occurs when an external or internal stimulus causes attention to wander completely away from the primary focal area.
      • Fluctuation vs. Shifting:
        • Fluctuation: A periodic wave of intensity where attention passes in and out, even when the stimulation remains completely constant.
        • Shifting: The voluntary or involuntary movement of focus from one distinct environmental stimulus to a competing one.
      • Set in Attention: A top-down mental framework or state of readiness to notice specific stimuli based on past habits, expectations, or desires.

  • Major Classifications & Factors of Attention

    • Primary Types:
      • Selective: Concentrating on a specific task while deliberately tuning out background distractions.
      • Sustained: Maintaining heightened concentration without interruption over an extended period.
      • Alternating: Moving awareness back and forth between different tasks that have distinct cognitive demands.
      • Overt vs. Covert: Overt attention involves physically focusing the gaze directly on an object; covert attention involves processing peripheral elements without moving the eyes.
      • Voluntary, Involuntary, & Habitual:
        • Voluntary: Requires active, self-initiated conscious effort (e.g., studying).
        • Involuntary: Occurs automatically without conscious effort (e.g., turning toward a sudden loud noise).
        • Habitual: Occurs without choice as a result of ongoing practice or personal interest.
    • Determinants of Attention:
      • Objective (External) Factors: These include Motion, large or unusual Size, high Intensity (such as bright lights or loud sounds), Contrast against surroundings, Novelty, and short Duration. Discrete repetitions are noted to increase sensory sensitivity more effectively than continuous stimulation.
      • Subjective (Internal) Factors: These include Biological Motives/Needs, Previous Experience, established Habits, current Mindset, Moods/Attitudes, individual Interests, and overarching Goals.

  • Theories of Selective Attention

    • Broadbent's Bottleneck Model (1958): A strict early selection model. It posits that multiple incoming physical messages flood sensory receptors, creating a bottleneck. Only a single stimulus passes through a selective filter for higher-level processing, while others are blocked from awareness entirely.
    • Treisman's Filter-Attenuation Model (1964): A modified version of early selection. It suggests that unattended stimuli are not blocked entirely but are weakened in physical strength by an attenuator. Highly personally relevant items (e.g., hearing one's own name) can pass through this weakened filter to reach conscious meaning.
    • Deutsch & Deutsch Late Selection Model (1963): This model proposes that all incoming messages (attended and unattended) undergo complete, unconscious semantic analysis. The selection filter is placed later, just before working memory, and selection is based strictly on immediate relevance.

  • Sensation, Perception, and Thresholds

    • The Difference:
      • Sensation: The simple absorption of physical energy (light or sound waves) by receptors and its translation into electrical nerve impulses.
      • Perception: An active process involving the organization and interpretation of raw input (Sensation+Meaning=Perception\text{Sensation} + \text{Meaning} = \text{Perception}).
    • Perception Components:
      • The Perceiver: Shaped by motives, experiences, and emotions.
      • The Target: The object or person being evaluated; interpretation needs increase as ambiguity increases.
      • The Situation: The surrounding environmental context.
    • Sensory Thresholds:
      • Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulus intensity required for a sensory system to detect it exactly 50%50\% of the time.
      • Difference Threshold (JND): The smallest physical change or difference in intensity between two stimuli required for an observer to note a distinction 50%50\% of the time.
      • Weber’s Law: States that the amount of physical change needed to achieve a Just Noticeable Difference (JND) is a constant, stable proportion of the original stimulus's intensity.
      • Subliminal Perception: The registration and processing of stimuli that fall completely below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

  • Processing Patterns & Gestalt Principles

    • Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Processing:
      • Bottom-Up (Data-Driven): Constructs perception step-by-step from raw sensory components like lines, angles, and edges.
      • Top-Down (Concept-Driven): Uses pre-existing cognitive expectations, past experiences, and cultural upbringing to recognize whole patterns immediately.
    • Gestalt Perceptual Laws: Founded by Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka. The core premise is that "the whole is different from and greater than the sum of its separate parts."
      • Figure-Ground Segregation: The foundational division where the target (Figure) has clear contours, and everything else (Ground) remains formless behind it.
      • Law of Pragnanz (Minimum Principle): The tendency to organize the visual field into the simplest, most regular, and most symmetrical format possible.
      • Law of Closure: Mentally filling in physical gaps to perceive a whole shape from an incomplete boundary.
      • Law of Proximity: Elements physically close to each other are automatically grouped into a single unit.
      • Law of Similarity: Grouping separate visual pieces if they share similar shapes, colors, or textures.
      • Law of Continuity: Tracking and grouping elements into smooth, continuous lines.
      • Law of Common Fate: Viewing objects as a single entity if they move simultaneously in the same direction (e.g., a flock of birds).

  • Constancies, Illusions, and Depth Perception

    • Perceptual Constancies: The ability to recognize properties of familiar items (Size, Shape/Form, and Brightness) as unchanging despite shifts in the retinal image. Size constancy utilizes the size-distance invariance principle.
    • Phi-Phenomenon: Discovered by Max Wertheimer in 1912; an optical illusion where stationary lights flashing in rapid succession appear as a single moving light.
    • Visual Illusions: Systematic misinterpretations of sensory data, such as the Muller-Lyer and Horizontal-Vertical illusions.
    • Cues for Depth Perception:
      • Monocular (Pictorial/Psychological) Cues: Require only one eye. These include Relative Size, Interposition (Overlapping), Linear Perspective (lines converging at a vanishing point), Aerial Perspective (haze/blurriness), Light and Shade, Relative Height, Texture Gradient, and Motion Parallax (near objects appear to move faster than distant ones).
      • Binocular (Physiological) Cues: Require both eyes. These include Retinal Disparity (the 6.5 cm6.5\,cm distance between eyes creating distinct images), Convergence (inward turning of eye muscles), and Accommodation (ciliary muscles changing lens thickness).

Module I: Evolution of Psychology (15 Marks)

  • Origins and Definition

    • Etymology: Derived from Greek words psyche (soul/mind) and logos (study).
    • Historical Evolution: Transitioned from the study of the soul/mind, to consciousness, to behavior.
    • Modern Definition: The scientific study of behavior (overt/outward) and mental processes (covert/internal).
    • Parent Disciplines: A blend of Philosophy and Physiology.

  • Theoretical Roots Summary Matrix

    • Rationalism:
      • Figures: Plato, René Descartes.
      • Framework: Knowledge comes from logical analysis and reasoned introspection. Descartes proposed Dualism (mind and body as separate systems).
    • Empiricism:
      • Figures: Aristotle, John Locke.
      • Framework: Knowledge is acquired via empirical observation and sensory experience. Locke coined Tabula Rasa (the blank slate).
    • Structuralism:
      • Figures: Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener.
      • Framework: The first formal school. Wundt opened the first experimental lab in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. Used Introspection to break consciousness into basic sensory blocks. Criticized for being reductionist and subjective.
    • Functionalism:
      • Figures: William James.
      • Framework: James (the Father of American Psychology) focused on the fluid functions of mental processes and how behavior helps humans adapt.
    • Psychoanalysis:
      • Figures: Sigmund Freud.
      • Framework: Focus on the unconscious mind, hidden internal forces, repressed desires, and childhood trauma. Techniques: free association, dream analysis.
    • Behaviorism:
      • Figures: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov.
      • Framework: Rejects internal states; focuses on objective, observable behavior and learning. Key concepts: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and the ABC Model (Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence).
    • Gestalt School:
      • Figures: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka.
      • Framework: Holistic approach; the mind groups separate pieces into meaningful systems.
    • Humanism:
      • Figures: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers.
      • Framework: Known as the "Third Force." Emphasizes free will, inherent goodness, and self-actualization. Rogers focused on congruence between self-image and ideal-self; Maslow created the Hierarchy of Needs.
    • Cognitive Framework:
      • Figures: Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, George Miller.
      • Framework: The "Cognitive Revolution" focused on knowing, remembering, and thinking. Piaget mapped development stages; Chomsky identified the Language Acquisition Device (LAD); Miller studied memory capacity.
    • Biological Perspective:
      • Figures: Roger Sperry, James Olds.
      • Framework: Focus on brain structures, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetics. Sperry showed hemispheric specialization; Olds showed brain stimulation evokes emotions.
    • Socio-Cultural Perspective:
      • Figures: Lev Vygotsky.
      • Framework: Behavior shaped by social contexts and customs. Vygotsky emphasized cognitive development through collaborative dialogue.

  • Granular Psychodynamic Concepts

    • Iceberg Analogy:
      • Conscious: Thoughts currently in awareness.
      • Preconscious/Subconscious: Memories retrievable with effort.
      • Unconscious: Fears and immoral urges hidden from awareness.
    • Personality Elements:
      • Id: Pleasure principle, unconscious, primitive drives.
      • Ego: Reality principle, conscious mediator.
      • Superego: Morality principle, internalized rules.
    • Defense Mechanisms: Techniques used by the Ego to reduce anxiety.
      • Repression: Pushing thoughts out of awareness.
      • Displacement: Redirecting anger to a safer target.
      • Rationalization: Generating logical excuses.
      • Projection: Attributing one's own flaws to others.
    • Psychosexual Fixation: Stages include Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital. Fixation results from over- or under-satisfaction. The Phallic stage includes the Oedipus Complex, Castration Anxiety, and Penis Envy.

  • History of Psychology in India & Lab Pioneers

    • Indian Psychology: Evolution from philosophical texts to colonial establishers (first department at Calcutta University in 1916), to post-independent synthesis.
    • Wundt Lab Attendants:
      • James McKeen Cattell: Focused on individual differences and mental tests.
      • Emil Kraepelin: Developed the first classification system for mental disorders.
      • Hugo Münsterberg: Applied psychology to industrial and legal fields.

  • Scope Checklist (14 Branches)

    1. Abnormal: Deviant behaviors.
    2. Clinical: Evaluating and treating major disorders.
    3. Counseling: Everyday stress, grief, and marriage.
    4. Developmental: Life-span growth.
    5. Educational: Macro learning systems.
    6. School: Micro-level student counseling.
    7. Experimental: Lab-based research.
    8. Forensic: Law and criminal profiling.
    9. Health: Mind-body wellness.
    10. Personality: Trait variations.
    11. Psychometrics: Construction of measurement tests.
    12. Positive: Strengths and well-being.
    13. Sports: Athletic performance.
    14. Social: Group dynamics and attitudes.

Module II: Scientific Methods to Study Human Behaviour (15 Marks)

  • Foundational Goals & Research Designs

    • Scientific Goals: Describe, Explain, Predict, and Control/Change behavior.
    • Research Orientations:
      • Basic vs. Applied: Basic (Pure) research focuses on theory; Applied research focuses on immediate real-world solutions.
      • Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative uses numbers and statistics; Qualitative analyzes non-numerical data (words/experiences).

  • Method Matrix Summary

    • Observation:
      • Subtypes: Systematic (Controlled), Naturalistic, Participant (Disguised or Undisguised).
      • Trade-offs: Captures real behavior but suffers from high reactivity (subjects change behavior when observed) and cannot measure internal attitudes.
    • Interview:
      • Subtypes: Structured (fixed order), Semi-Structured (thematic framework), Unstructured (flexible conversation).
      • Trade-offs: Provides qualitative depth but is time-consuming and prone to subjective bias.
    • Case Study:
      • Description: Intensive analysis of a single unit (person or community). Can be Exploratory, Descriptive, or Explanatory.
      • Trade-offs: Rich narrative data but limited generalizability.
    • Questionnaire:
      • Description: Forms with Fixed-Response (multiple choice) or Open-End items. Must avoid double negatives and leading questions.
      • Trade-offs: Large data scope but relies on respondent honesty.
    • Survey:
      • Description: Fact-finding tools using questionnaires across large populations. Uses the Panel Technique (tracking over intervals).
      • Trade-offs: Rapid population data but requires significant planning.
    • Correlational Study:
      • Description: Tests relationship strength and direction without manipulation. Uses a Predictor Variable to project a Criterion Variable.
      • Critical Fact: Correlation does NOT prove causation.
    • Experimental Method:
      • Description: Gold standard for cause-and-effect. Manipulates the Independent Variable (IV) and measures effects on the Dependent Variable (DV) while holding Extraneous Variables constant.
      • Structure: Experimental Group (receives treatment) vs. Control Group (no treatment).
      • Trade-offs: High control but artificial settings can limit ecological validity.

Module IV: Consciousness (15 Marks)

  • The Nature of Consciousness & EEG Waves

    • Definition: Awareness of internal states and external stimuli. William James called this the "Stream of Consciousness."
    • EEG Patterns Summary Table:
      • Beta (β\beta): 13–24 cps13–24\,cps; Normal waking thought, alert focus.
      • Alpha (α\alpha): 8–12 cps8–12\,cps; Deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation.
      • Theta (θ\theta): 4–7 cps4–7\,cps; Light sleep phases.
      • Delta (Δ\Delta): Less than 4 cps4\,cps; Deep, slow-wave sleep cycles.

  • Biological Rhythms and Disruption

    • Circadian Rhythm: A 2424-hour internal clock regulated by light-dark cycles.
    • Disruptions:
      • Jet Lag: Flying across time zones causes fatigue and insomnia.
      • Shift Work: Disrupts biological rhythms; can have more severe health impacts than jet lag.

  • Sleep Architecture & Stages

    • Measurements: EEG (brain waves), EMG (muscle tension), EOG (eye movements), and ECG (heart contractions).
    • NREM-REM Progression:
      1. Stage 1 NREM: 10–1210–12 minutes. Transition from alpha to theta waves. Respiration drops.
      2. Stage 2 NREM: 10–2510–25 minutes. Further slowing; contains Sleep Spindles (bursts of high frequency) and K-Complexes.
      3. Stages 3 & 4 NREM (Slow-Wave Sleep): 20–4020–40 minutes. High-amplitude Delta waves. Essential for tissue repair.
      4. REM (Rapid Eye Movement): Alert-looking brain waves, vivid dreaming, and Muscle Atonia (temporary paralysis).
    • Cycle Dynamics: A single loop takes 9090 minutes. Nightly cycles (about 4) see NREM Deep Sleep diminish and REM periods lengthen (40–6040–60 minutes). REM constitutes 50%50\% of sleep in infants and 20%20\% in adults.

  • Theoretical Explanations of Sleep & Dreams

    • Sleep Purpose Theories:
      • Restorative: NREM repairs tissue; REM consolidates memory.
      • Energy Conservation: Lowering metabolic demand at night.
      • Adaptive (Evolutionary): Survival mechanism for staying motionless when predators are active.
    • Dream Features: Continuous sequences, first-person perspective, reflect Day Residue.
    • Dream Theories:
      • Freudian: Pathway to unconscious wishes. Includes Manifest Content (literal events) and Latent Content (symbolic meaning).
      • Neurocognitive Theory (Domhoff): Dreams mirror waking cognitive networks and daily concerns.

  • Hypnosis & Meditation

    • Hypnosis: State of passive relaxation and responsiveness to suggestion introduced by James Braid.
      • Phenomena: Anesthesia, hallucinations, posthypnotic amnesia.
      • Theories: Role Play View (acting out social expectations) vs. Dissociation Theory (Hilgard) (consciousness splits into two streams with a "Hidden Observer").
    • Meditation: Concentrative (focusing on one point) or Mindfulness (non-judgmental awareness). Suppresses autonomic arousal and increases alpha/theta waves.

  • Psychoactive Drugs Matrix

    • Narcotics (Opiates): Morphine, Heroin. Used for pain relief. Cause euphoria and lethargy.
    • Sedatives: Barbiturates, Quaaludes. Reduced inhibitions, severe motor impairment.
    • Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine. Increase alertness and energy; side effects include paranoia and insomnia.
    • Hallucinogens: LSD, Mescaline. Distorted time and sensory awareness.
    • Cannabis: Marijuana, Hashish. Mild euphoria; treats glaucoma/chemotherapy nausea.
    • Alcohol: Reduced anxiety; severe mental/motor impairment.     *