English Literature Notes

Literature derives from the Latin word litera, meaning letter; it allows the writer to express themselves and reflects the culture of the country.
Written works combine artistry and intellectuality, presenting morality.
PROSE: written in paragraph form, spoken in an ordinary way, without metrical structure.
DRAMA: narrative through dialogue and action, performed by actors; already presented.
POETRY: oldest form of literature, flourished orally; art of expression of one's thoughts.
Haiku: 3 lines only, historically due to paper costs in Japan.

Lyric Poetry: short poem with song-like rhythm that expresses personal feelings. Eg: lines expressing sadness and longing
- Example excerpt (paraphrased):
- "I feel a sense of sadness … How I wish all I would do is lay … A heavy feeling of loneliness … I wanna go to somewhere far away"
Narrative Poetry: tells a story

Characters: roles within a story
- Protagonist: major character, bound to complete a quest; story revolves around them
- Antagonist: appears villainous, creates conflict, opposes the protagonist
- Confidante: supports the protagonist; can be a family member or friend
- Foil: opposite of the protagonist to emphasize their traits (e.g., nerd vs. dumb)
- Stock: exists without significant character development or significance
Characterization: how characters are presented
- Direct characterization: directly describes traits (e.g., "she was a kind person who helped everyone")
- Indirect characterization: reveals personality through actions, thoughts, appearance, etc. (e.g., donating to those in need shows kindness)
Conflict: the challenges characters face
- Character vs. self: internal struggles, identity, feelings
- Character vs. society: conflict with social norms
- Character vs. character: conflict with another character
- Character vs. nature: conflict with natural forces

Plot: sequence of events
- Linear plot: chronological order
- Flashback plot: interruptions to revisit past events
- Parallel plot: two or more storylines (different points of view in one frame)
Symbolism and imagery: use of symbols with deeper meanings
Point of View: perspective from which the story is told; can be 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person

Dragon: symbolizes good luck, prosperity, and strength
Calligraphy: originated in China; a visual art; mastering it is a hallmark
Great Wall of China: about $21\ \text{km}$ long and purely man-made; symbolized their power
Chinese zodiac: $12$ animals
The color red: symbolizes happiness and good fortune
Chopsticks: used for $3000$ years
Fireworks: used to drive away bad spirits
Confucianism: philosophical system

Recurring structures: rhyme schemes, rhythms, forms
- Contribute to poem organization; create sense of order or intentional variation
Rhyme and Meter
- Rhyme: repetition of sounds at the end of lines
- Meter: rhythmic pattern in a line, created by stressed and unstressed syllables
- Example rhyme pairing: Tears & Fears (end with -ears); Repressed & Confessed (end with -essed) → Rhyme scheme: A A B B (example given as AABB)
- Anapestic tetrameter: a foot with two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable; four feet in the line (example line: "But the man of my heart is not here and I mourn" demonstrates the metrical pattern)
- To describe meter per line, count the number of syllables per unit (feet)

Diction: poet’s word choice and arrangement; affects formality, connotations, reader impact; influences tone, mood, and meaning
Tone: poet’s attitude toward subject or audience
Mood: emotions the poem evokes in the reader; created via imagery, diction, tone
Style: the poet’s distinct way of expressing thoughts and ideas; can be unique, complex, or simple; shapes reception and understanding
Motifs: recurring ideas, symbols, or themes used to reinforce central messages; add depth and consistency
Figurative language (common devices):
1) Simile
2) Metaphor
3) Personification
4) Apostrophe
5) Alliteration
6) Hyperbole
7) Euphemism
8) Antithesis

Point of View: the perspective of the speaker or narrator (first-person, second-person, third-person)
Narrative Techniques: methods used to tell a story or convey a message
- Imagery, symbolism, dialogue
Organic Unity: cohesion and harmony of a poem’s elements; all parts work together to support the overall theme
Organic unity implies that every component (rhyme, meter, diction, tone, style, figurative language) contributes to the poem’s overall effect and meaning

Biographical Context (personal): life, experiences, beliefs, and history of the author
- Ryonosuke Akutagawa (1892–1927): prominent Japanese short-story writer, often called the “Father of the Japanese Short Story”; wrote to blend Western and Japanese cultures; faced mental health struggles; produced over 150 short stories exploring human struggles
Historical Context (period): how the era influenced the work
- In a Grove (set in the Taisho era, Japan, c. 1922) during rapid modernization and Western influence; society becoming more democratic; time of social/cultural change
Sociocultural Context: how social and cultural factors influence a work
- In a Grove is set in feudal Japan with strict hierarchies and codes of honor; themes of duty, loyalty, reputation; testimonies by witnesses reveal social expectations and individual motives; explores gender roles and power dynamics

Publication and setting: first appeared in 1922, during Taisho era’s modernization and Western influence
Core focus: a complex murder case of a samurai; reveals tensions between traditional values and modern life; reflects time's uncertainty and instability
Themes: gender roles, power dynamics, duty, loyalty, reputation, social norms vs individual motives

Theme: the message the author wants to convey
Steps to analyze:
1) Know the traits of the characters
2) Determine the conflict and struggles
3) Learn how the conflict was solved
4) Make a general statement that summarizes the event
Purposes of writing:
- Inform: teach and explain topics, provide information
- Persuade: convince readers to adopt the author’s stance; often uses persuasive techniques; may invoke "SHOULD"
- Entertain: stimulate emotions and amuse with story, plot, characters
- Express: share the writer’s personal thoughts and opinions

Expression through a writer’s voice, tone, and choice of topic; the notes above reflect the content of the transcript and provide a structured outline suitable for study and exam preparation.