Chapter 6 Learning
Chapter 6: Learning
Page 2: Definition of Learning
Learning: A long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience.
Brief changes in behavior do not qualify as learning.
Engage with Crash Course for a foundational overview.
Page 3: Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity:
Refers to the brain's ability to change throughout a person's life.
Brain activity can transfer functions to different locations.
Neuron proportions can change, and synapses may strengthen or weaken over time.
Page 4: Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
Long-term Potentiation:
Persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.
Produces a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons.
Page 5: Associative Learning
Associative Learning: Learning that certain events occur together:
Classical Conditioning: Association between two stimuli.
Operant Conditioning: Association between a response and its consequences.
Page 6: Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning:
Involves forming an association with a naturally occurring stimulus.
Described by Ivan Pavlov; includes neutral stimulus before a reflex behavior (e.g., salivation).
Page 7: Pavlov's Experiment Observations
Observations:
Before Conditioning: Food (Unconditioned Stimulus - UCS) creates salivation (Unconditioned Response - UCR).
During Conditioning: Neutral stimulus (Tuning fork) introduced before UCS.
After Conditioning: Tuning fork becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS) resulting in salivation (Conditioned Response - CR).
Page 8: Classical Conditioning Setup
Conditioning Steps:
Before Conditioning: UCS (food) causes UCR (salivation).
During Conditioning: neutral stimulus (tuning fork) paired with UCS.
After Conditioning: CS (tuning fork) now elicits CR (salivation).
Page 9: Classical Conditioning Terms
Terms and Descriptions:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The original stimulus (food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Response to UCS (salivation).
Neutral Stimulus: Stimulus with no conditioned response (sound of bell).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Learned association (sound of the bell).
Page 10: Types of Conditioning
Conditioning Types:
Delayed Conditioning: CS presented while still presented with UCS.
Trace Conditioning: CS presented before UCS, separated by a trace interval.
Page 11: Further Conditioning Types
Conditioning Methods:
Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and UCS are presented and ended together.
Backward Conditioning: UCS presented first, followed by CS (ineffective).
Page 12: Classical Conditioning Concepts
Key Concepts:
Acquisition: Learning to respond to CS without UCS.
Extinction: Unlearning behavior; CS no longer elicits CR.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR after extinction without training.
Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to CS.
Page 13: Watson's Little Albert Experiment
John B. Watson:
Conducted Little Albert experiment demonstrating aversive conditioning.
Before Conditioning: Neutral stimulus (white rat) paired with loud noise (UCS).
After Conditioning: Rat becomes CS producing fear (CR).
Page 14: First-order and Second-order Conditioning
First-order Conditioning: Pairing a neutral stimulus with an UCS (e.g., bell with food).
Second-order Conditioning: Pairing new neutral stimulus (light) with CS to create a new CS.
Page 15: Conditioned Taste Aversions
Learned Taste Aversions:
Garcia effect: Associating unusual food with nausea leads to aversion.
Used in therapeutic settings for alcoholics by pairing alcohol with nausea-producing drugs.
Page 16: Garcia & Koelling Experiment
Garcia & Koelling:
Showed rats easily learned associations between nausea and taste but not between taste and shock.
Highlights biological predispositions in learning associations.
Page 17: Rescorla-Wagner Contingency Model
Contingency Model:
Developed by Rescorla, diverges from Pavlov's model, focusing on the importance of prediction in conditioning rather than just association frequency.
Page 18: Instrumental Learning
Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect states:
Pleasant consequences strengthen S-R connections, while unpleasant consequences weaken them.
Page 19: Thorndike's Experiment
Thorndike's Experiment:
Measure time taken for animals to escape from puzzles; time decreased with increased trials.
Page 20: Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning:
Described by B.F. Skinner; involves reinforcement/punishment to modify behavior.
Page 21: Reinforcement
Reinforcement:
Positive Reinforcement: Adding pleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., food).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., turning off a loud noise).
Page 22: Punishment
Punishment:
Anything that reduces likelihood of behavior recurrence.
Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., shock).
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy).
Page 23: Escape and Avoidance Conditioning
Escape Conditioning:
Behavior that results in leaving an aversive stimulus (e.g., acting out to escape tasks).
Avoidance Conditioning:
Learning to avoid the unpleasant situation entirely (e.g., faking illness to avoid the dentist).
Page 24: Summary of Reinforcement and Punishment
Reinforcement Effect: Increases/Maintains Behavior
Punishment Effect: Decreases Behavior
Positive: Adds stimulus
Negative: Removes stimulus
Page 25: Shaping Behavior
Shaping: Reinforces steps towards a desired behavior.
Page 26: Chaining Behaviors
Chaining:
Involves reinforcing a sequence of behaviors to form complex behavior (e.g., obstacle course for animals).
Page 27: Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers:
Food, water, rest; directly satisfy biological needs.
Secondary Reinforcers:
Learned values (e.g., money, grades); facilitate survival indirectly.
Page 28: Premack Principle
Premack Principle:
The preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred activity (e.g., reward less favored tasks with more enjoyable ones).
Page 29: Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Consistent rewards for a behavior.
Partial Reinforcement: Inconsistent rewards, leading to higher resistance to extinction.
Page 30: Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Schedules: Rules on frequency of reinforcement:
Fixed Ratio: After a set number of responses.
Fixed Interval: After a specific time elapses.
Page 31: Variable Schedules
Variable Ratio: After varying responses (e.g., gambling).
Variable Interval: After varying time intervals.
Page 32: Comparing Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval: Average performance; quick extinction.
Fixed Ratio: Quick, stable performance; moderate extinction.
Variable Interval: Stable performance; slow extinction.
Variable Ratio: Quick performance; very slow extinction.
Page 33: Token Economy
Token Economy: Procedure where individuals earn tokens for behaviors to exchange for privileges.
Page 34: Cognitive Learning
Cognitive Learning: Learning by observing and through language.
Albert Bandura: Observational learning emphasizes the role of observing and imitating others.
Page 35: Abstract Learning
Abstract Learning: Involves understanding concepts rather than just learned responses (e.g., recognizing shapes).
Page 36: Latent Learning
Latent Learning: Change in behavior without reinforcement (e.g., Tolman's rat experiment).
Page 37: Insight Learning
Insight Learning (Köhler): Occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem, suggesting that not all learning is gradual.
Page 39: Conclusion of Learning Chapter 6
Comprehensive overview of learning, its types, and theories, culminating in varied learning methods.