Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes Notes

6.1: The Origins and Influences of Urbanization

Site and situation influence the origin, function, and growth of cities.
- Cities are urban areas with a high concentration of people.
- The location of cities is influenced by physical geography, economics, politics, and culture.
- Site refers to the characteristics of the immediate location, such as soil, climate, labor force, or structures.
  - It describes what is happening at that absolute spot.
- Situation refers to the location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places.
  - It describes what is happening around the spot that influences the area.
Site of a city is based on an absolute location (fixed).
- Reasons for settling in a location include climate, vegetation, landforms, drinkable water, arable land, and resources.
Situation is the location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places.
- It connects the city to other cities and raw materials.
- Situation leads to the growth of cities.
- Major cities are often located by waterways for access to trade (e.g., Tokyo, Chicago, St. Louis).
New Orleans:
- Site factors: below sea level, originally wetlands drained for city use.
- Situation factors: along the Mississippi River where it meets the Gulf of Mexico, a major trade location, but prone to flooding.
Singapore:
- Site factors: small island, limited land area.
- Situation factors: Strait of Malacca, a major world shipping lane and chokepoint.
Urban Hearths:
- Early City States developed due to agricultural surplus in river valleys.
- This led to an increase in population.
- Communities evolved from villages to towns to cities.
- Political and social hierarchy emerged, including income differences.
- Job specialization occurred due to food surplus, leading to the provision of services.
Central Business District (CBD):
- Often referred to as "Downtown," it is the oldest part of the city.
- It is a small area but contains a large percentage of public, business, and consumer services.
- It serves as the city’s node.
- It has easy access to transportation, including highways, rivers, and rails.

2. Changes Influencing Urbanization

Changes in transportation and communication, population growth, migration, economic development, and government policies influence urbanization.
- Transportation:
  - Space-time compression (faster, efficient transportation allows for longer-distance commutes).
- Communication:
  - Progression from telegrams and telephones to email.
  - The Internet allows people to work at home.
Epochs of Transportation:
- Sail-Wagon (1790-1830):
  - Water ports became very important.
  - Poor road conditions made travel between cities difficult.
- Iron Horse (1830-1870):
  - Steam engines powered boats, and river cities expanded.
  - Regional rail networks connected cities.
  - Rail lines connected resources and industrial sites.
- Steel Rail (1870-1920):
  - Transcontinental railways emerged.
  - Cities emerged along rail lines in the interior of the continent.
- Auto-Air-Amenity (1920-1970):
  - Cars allowed cities to spread out.
  - Airport hubs emerged.
  - Cities became far more interconnected.
- 5th Epoch?
  - Mass Transit (rail-lines).
  - Biking (bike lanes, bike paths).
  - Walking (car-free areas in cities).
  - Hyperloop?
Urbanization:
- Rural to urban migration accelerated during the Industrial Revolution.
- It is the process of developing towns and cities.
- Today, over 50% of all people are urban.
- Most growth is coming from LDCs (Less Developed Countries).
- Rapid urbanization in LDCs may lead to problems.
Economic Development:
- Economic pull factors in urban areas increase rural to urban migration.
  - Job opportunities.
  - Schools.
  - Higher standard of living.
Government Policies:
- Government policies can influence urbanization.
  - Tax breaks encourage business investment.
  - Forward capitals are symbolically relocated capitals for strategic or economic reasons (e.g., Brasilia, Brazil; Abuja, Nigeria).

6.2: Cities Across the World

Megacities and Metacities are distinct spatial outcomes of urbanization, increasingly located in countries of the periphery and semi-periphery.
- Megacity: population of 10 million or more.
- Metacity: population of 20 million or more.
- Formed by high growth rates and rural-urban migrations.
Megacities:
- World’s largest cities in terms of population (10+ million).
- Rapid Net in-Migration.
- Strained inadequate infrastructure.
- Exert influence regionally and sometimes worldwide, mainly due to population.
- Hold cultural, political, and economic power.
Megacity growth in LDCs (Less Developed Countries):
- Megacities used to be in large empires or powerful countries.
- The shift is starting to occur to periphery/semi-periphery countries.
- Why?
  - Causes:
    - High Birth rates.
    - Economic pull factors.
    - Rural to Urban migration.
- In 2015, half of the 30 largest cities were in periphery/semi-periphery countries.
Megalopolis
- A chain of connected large cities
  - BosWash (Boston to Washington DC)
  - California Corridor
  - Tokyo-Yokohama

2. Processes of Suburbanization, Sprawl, and Decentralization

Processes of suburbanization, sprawl, and decentralization have created new land-use forms (including edge cities, exurbs, and boomburbs) and new challenges.
- Urban/Suburban sprawl: city grows outward/horizontally.
  - Car-dependent.
  - Puts stress on infrastructure and land.
  - Reasons: cars, cheap land/gas, highways.
Suburbanization:
- Large residential areas adjacent to an urban area.
- Process of people moving from the inner city to the outskirts of cities.
- Causes of Suburbanization:
  - Happened after WWII in NA due to economic expansion and greater purchasing power for families.
  - Cheaper land and more space.
  - Growth of a car-centered lifestyle with cheap gas and affordable cars.
  - Better schools.
  - Construction of new highways, making commuting easier for suburban dwellers.
As people move further from the city center, the importance and connection to downtown areas decreases (decentralization).
Edge cities:
- As suburbs grew, key locations along transportation routes began to have CBD (Central Business District) tendencies.
- Nodes of economic activity that have developed in the periphery (edges) of large cities.
  - Tall office buildings.
  - Concentration of retail shops, few residences.
  - Located along major transportation routes.
Boomburbs: large, rapidly growing suburban communities of 100,000 people or more on the edge of large urban areas (e.g., Arlington, Mesquite, Plano).
Exurbs: prosperous residential districts beyond the suburbs.
- Affluent communities, with residents who work from home, due to cultural or personal preferences.

6.3: Cities and Globalization

World cities function at the top of the world’s urban hierarchy and drive globalization.
- Urban Hierarchy: a ranking of cities based on population or economic, political, or cultural influence.
- World Cities (Global Cities): exert influence far beyond their national boundaries.
  - Media hubs.
  - Financial centers/stock exchanges.
  - Banks.
  - Corporate headquarters.
    - New York (UN HQ/Stock Exchange).
    - London.
    - Tokyo (Asian Hub/Stock Exchange).
    - Paris.
Globalization:
- The integration of markets, states, communication, and trade on a worldwide scale.
- Cities help this process in a variety of ways:
  - Trade: ports, resources, markets.
  - Economics: multinational corporations, multiple corporate headquarters.
  - Population: higher concentration of people in cities.
Connectivity & Accessibility:
- Improvements in transportation and infrastructure make travel and connections between cities faster (time-space compression).
Technology:
- High-speed internet and increased usage of cell phones or personal devices improve the ease of access to people, businesses, and improve the flow of money and ideas around the world.
  - Allows commuting, remote workers, outsourcing, regional specialization.

6.4: The Size and Distribution of Cities

Principles useful for explaining the distribution and size of cities include rank-size rule, the primate city, gravity, and Christaller’s Central Place Theory.
- Two ways to describe the distribution, size, and interactions of cities within a country.
Rank Size Rule (doesn’t have to be exact):
- The nth largest city in any region will be $\frac{1}{n}$ the size of the largest city.
  - For example, the 3rd largest city will be $\frac{1}{3}$ the size of the largest.
- Mostly seen in MDCs (More Developed Countries).
- Mostly in federal systems due to the sharing of power.
- Efficiently provides services for all its people regardless of cities.
  - USA, Canada, Australia, India.
Primate Cities:
- If the largest city is MORE than twice as large as the next largest city.
- Primate city is dominant and a social, political and economic hub for country.
- Offers wider variety of services than other smaller cities.
  - Disproportionate growth.
  - Burden for citizens to receive services if outside the primate city.
  - Lack of infrastructure and to other cities.
  - Pollution.
  - Brain Drain.
    Seen mostly in LDCs (Less Developed Countries).
Gravity Model:
- Used to estimate the amount of interaction between two cities (Situation).
- Places that are larger and closer together will have greater interaction than places that are smaller and farther away from each other.
- Used to predict the flow of workers, shoppers, tourists, mail, migrants, and other flows.
  - Greater flows between bigger cities and greater flows between nearby cities.
Central Place Theory
- Created by Walter Christaller (1933)
- Used to explain the distribution of cities of different sizes across a region.
- Described “Central Place” as a location where people go to receive goods and services
  - Examples
    - Convenience store, post office, church
    - Heart transplant or airflight in major cities

6.5: The Internal Structure of Cities

Models and theories useful for explaining internal structures of cities include the Burgess concentric-zone model, the Hoyt sector model, the Harris and Ullman multiple nuclei model, the galactic city model, bid rent curve theory, and urban models drawn from Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
CBD *Value of land more expensive due to Bid Rent Curve
- Manufacturing relocated due to high rent
- Commerce dominates instead
  - Skyscrapers and “underground cities” due to high rent
    Shopping, parking, rapid transit
In Europe, CBD’s located in historic hearth but buildings are lower
*Residential areas usually high rise apartments with high population density due to Bid Rent curve

USA City Models

Concentric Zone Model (Burgess Model)
Based off Chicago
Created by E.W. Burgess
Describes a city as a series of rings that surround the CBD
Concentric Zone Model (Burgess Model)
Zone 1: CBD: Central Business District
Zone 2: Zone of Transition
Industry and manufacturing mixed with poorer quality housing
- Higher population density
  Next 3 rings are residential
Zone 3: Zone of working class (lower class)
Modest older homes occupied by lower middle class families
*Zone 4: Zone of better residences (middle class)
Contains new and more spacious houses for middle class families
- Zone 5: Commuters Zone (suburbs/higher class)
  Suburbs

Larger more quality housing and spacious housing

Upper middle class/higher class

Sector Model (Hoyt Model)
Created by Homer Hoyt
Land use and housing grew outwards from the CBD in sectors or “wedges”.
Unique transportation/industry corridor that was adjacent to major highways or rail lines
High class residential opposite of industry
Multiple Nuclei Model (Ullman/Harris Model)
Developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman
Model suggested that land use and functions occurred along multiple centers or nodes
Airports, universities, ports, parks, business center
Each node either attracted or repelled certain activities
Universities attracted educated residents, pizzerias, bookstores
Airports attracted hotels, car rentals
Heavy industry and high class housing rarely existed together
Patchwork of land uses, each with its own nucleus (center)
Galactic City Model (Peripheral Model)
Created by Chauncy Harris
Based on Detroit
Created as a response to suburbanization and highways being built
Describes the spread of cities outward from CBD to suburbs, leaving a declining inner city
- Galactic City Model (Peripheral Model)
  Edge Cities
- As suburbs grew, key location along transportation routes began to have CBD tendencies
  Nodes of economic activity that developed in the periphery of large cities tall office buildings
  concentration of retail shops, few residences All located along major transportation routes

International City Models

Latin American City Model
Geographer: Griffin-Ford Model
* Two Part CBD in center
Combines a traditional market with, more modern high rise sector

Commercial spine

High quality housing and their amenities
sandwich the spine at the end of the spine

** Disamenity Zone -poorest parts of cities that in extreme cases are not connected to regular city services and are controlled by gangs and drug lords

    *   Barrios or favelas

Poorly built houses
Recent city migrants
Usually on physically unsafe locations

    *Sub-Saharan African City Model

Large cities were rare until 1900s with imperialism
Cities in Africa are shaped by a couple factors-They are located in the world’s periphery

Many of these cities are primate cities and have squatter settlememnts
Has a european influence from imperialism
Key Element: 3 CBD’S
The traditional CBD with traditional architecture and single story buildings : narrow, twisting streets formal economy with full-time jobs
Market zone - the traditional open air market -SIMILAR to the Latin American model:
informal economy zone a. No regulations curbside, car side, and stall based business Periodic markets
called Bazaars in North Africa Colonial CBD - straight avenues with large homes, parks and admin centers Resembles Europe

South East Asian City Model

Studied medium sized cities of Southeast
Asia and found that they exhibit similar land-use patterns.
Also combines RINGS and SECTORS

6.6: Density and Land Use

Changes
*Changes in Urban Areas
Through the years, cities go through many changes demographically, economically, and socially. Suburbanization causes many to seek a different lifestyle away from the inner city.
P Social class composition changes: -Neighborhoods and houses pass from one social group to anothe
Wealthy move into new homes, people with less wealth move into the older homes -Ripple effect on social scale: Sometimes the house is changed as it’s filtered, large single family homes subdivided into multi family
Ethnic and social composition changes through time
invasion and succession
White Flight Occurred in 1960’s-70’s when predominantly white families left urban areas to suburbs
Feared black people would lower property value
Cities try to find ways to development, older, abandoned or unused land
Urban Infill
The term "urban infill" itself implies that existing land is mostly built-out and what is being built is in effect "filling in" the gaps.

6.7: Infrastructure

Infrastructure:
Public transportation (buses, subways, light rail, trains) help residents move with urban setting.
Transportation features- roads, bridges, parking Buildings- Police, courthouses, firehouses Open spaces - public parks, town squares Museums, theaters, sports facilities.

6.9: Urban Data

-Qualitative data
Tries to gain an underlying understanding or motives individual interviews, open ended responses, observations, Perceptions, opinions: efforts to curtail gentrification
Maintaining character of a city
Data can be measured with numbers: Population City planners use data to plan for growth
Use for redistricting

6.8: Urban Sustainability

Urban Sustainability:
Sustainable Design Initiatives
Promotes sustainability Seeks to eliminate negative environmental impact through thoughtful and skillful building design Reduce nonrenewable use, Minimize waste Create healthy/productive environments.

A way to combat urban and Suburban Sprawl is through Smart Growth policies to preserve farmland and other open, undeveloped spaces Policies that mark undeveloped or no-zoning areas
Challenges:
Regulation that defines how property in a specific geographic region can be use: Residential (people live), Commercial (where people sell goods and services), Industrial (where people make things)Used for Urban Planning
Ghost Towns
A new type of Zoning Ordinance promotes sustainability: reduce sprawl by increasing affordable housing and create vibrant, liveable neighborhoods
New Urbanism
New building and sustainable materials are expensive, People not willing to give up car centered lifestyle Loss of historical or architecture replaced by new building: Lifestyle shift not welcome

6.10: Challenges of Urban Changes

Urban Decay:
Deindustrialization and inner cities
Filtering Process of neglect attracts low income residents to rent
Redlining
Urban Decay can be made worse by redlining:Banks refuse loans for improve properties in struggling neighborhoods
P Blockbusting adds to the issue
Shortage of affordable housing causes family to have to spend most of their income homelessness high crimes in poorly funded area
Low income families may lack credit or financing options for owning homes or purchasing power, This can create a “culture of poverty” or a “poverty cycle” that is difficult to overcome.

The idea that your health Should not. Suffer due. to the is proportionate Environments: Communities of Color & poor to air a disproportionate. Exposure Clinics Poor Health

Increase in squatter settlements and conflicts over ownership:

Constats conflict over ownership between city and people.
Types of disamenity zones:Squatter settlements or Favela/Barrios
Scattered Sites has: access to better schools and amenities
people is dispersed better wealth
local food movement provides fresh accessible food to locals through community and urban farms
Used to addresses urban decay in cities
Controversial: Forcing people from property / eliminates historic neighborhoods
The practice of wealthier residents moving into a neighborhood and renovating the property create effects due to more population

Political hierarchy can cause between levels of government lack, is slow or gridlock occurs

6.11: Challenges of Urban Sustainability

Challenges to urban sustainability challenges can include suburban sprawl, sanitation, climate change, air and water quality
Sanitation and Pollution Increase in population also increases wasteIndustrial and waste can also can causes for cars and waste

Cities struggle to meet increased population waste disposal to landfillsDecreases air pollution due to less Mass transit alleviates and less energy use: Recycling for waste and water management for water waste to the area for cars the population for energy use to the area and water management

brownfieldsTo attract businesses and residents renovate and completely rebuild new structures minimize or compartment of the planning of farmland area