Hobbs Reading Notes

CHAP. XIII. Of the NATURALL CONDITION of Mankind, as concerning their Felicity, and Misery

  • Human beings are naturally equal in faculties, leading to equal hope in attaining desires; this equality causes competition and conflict when individuals desire the same thing.

  • Without a common power, mankind exists in a "state of war," characterized by three principal causes of quarrel: Competition (for gain), Diffidence (for safety), and Glory (for reputation).

  • In this state of war, life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"; there is no industry, culture, knowledge, or society.

  • Passions (fear of death, desire for commodious life) and Reason incline men towards peace, leading to the discovery of Laws of Nature.

CHAP. XIV. Of the first and second NATURALL LAWES, and of CONTRACTS

  • RIGHT OF NATURE (Jus Naturale): The liberty to use one's power to preserve one's life by any means judged fit.

  • LAW OF NATURE (Lex Naturalis): A precept of reason forbidding destructive acts against life and commanding actions that preserve it.

  • In the state of nature, every man has a right to everything, including another's body, which leads to insecurity.

  • The necessity of peace dictates a natural precept to seek peace; covenants and a common power are essential to enforce these laws and ensure security.

CHAP. XVII. Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a COMMON-WEALTH

  • The ultimate purpose of a commonwealth is escape from the miserable state of war and attainment of peace and security through submission to a common power.

  • Unlike animal societies, human societies require a common power due to envy, vanity, and the capacity for language and debate, which lead to strife without authority.

  • The Leviathan (an artificial person or sovereign) is essential: it unites all power to compel obedience, defend against invasion, and maintain internal order.

  • Sovereignty can be established by Acquisition (force) or Institution (covenant).

  • A commonwealth is defined as a multitude united under one person or assembly, whose authorized acts bind all members for common peace and defense.

CHAP. XVIII. Of the RIGHTS of Soveraignes by Institution

  • A commonwealth is instituted when a majority covenants to authorize a sovereign (man or assembly) to represent them, whose actions and judgments are considered their own, ensuring peace and protection.

  • This institution establishes all the rights and faculties of the sovereign, confirming the stability of the established government.

Reading Questions:

-What is the state of nature, according to Hobbes? What does the state of nature lead to, according to him?

    According to Hobbes, the state of nature is a condition where human beings are naturally equal in faculties, which leads to equal hope in attaining desires.


-What are the consequences of war, according to him?

    According to Hobbes, the consequences of war, particularly in the "state of war" where there is no common power, are severe. Life in this state is described as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Furthermore, in such a state, there is an absence of industry, culture, knowledge, or society.


-How can/must the situation be remediated?

    According to Hobbes, the dire "state of war" can be remediated by both human passions and reason. Passions, specifically the fear of death and the desire for a commodious life, incline individuals towards peace. Reason then leads to the discovery of the Laws of Nature, which are precepts forbidding destructive acts against life and commanding actions that preserve it. The primary Law of Nature dictates the necessity to seek peace.


-What is “common Power”? Which “passions” lead human beings to submit to such “common Power”, and to achieve what?

    According to Hobbes, “Common Power” refers to the overarching sovereign authority, often personified as the Leviathan or a commonwealth, which is an artificial person or assembly uniting all power. Its purpose is to compel obedience, defend against invasion, and maintain internal order among individuals. A commonwealth is defined as a multitude united under one such person or assembly, whose authorized acts bind all members for the common peace and defense.


-Are what Hobbes calls the “Lawes of Nature” (Justice, Equity, Mercy) “natural”?

        Regarding the "Laws of Nature" (such as Justice, Equity, and Mercy), Hobbes considers them "natural" in the sense that they are precepts of reason discovered through an individual's natural inclination to preserve their own life and seek peace. A Law of Nature (Lex Naturalis) is a precept or general rule found out by reason, which forbids a man to do that which is destructive of his life, or takes away the means of preserving the same, and to omit that by which he thinks it may be best preserved.


What about “natural passions” such as partiality, pride and revenge?

    Hobbes views these natural passions as inherent to human nature, often conflicting with the Laws of Nature, as they can drive individuals towards actions that may harm both themselves and others. Instead of promoting peace and preservation, passions like partiality, pride, and revenge can lead to discord and conflict, highlighting the need for a strong social contract to mitigate their destructive potential.

-What allows the Lawes of Nature to be observed, according to him?

    According to Hobbes, what allows the Laws of Nature to be observed is the establishment of a "common power" or sovereign. While human passions (like the fear of death and the desire for a commodious life) and reason incline individuals to discover these laws and seek peace, these laws cannot be reliably observed without an enforcing authority.


-For men, do private interests coincide with the common good, according to Hobbes?

    According to Hobbes, private interests generally do not coincide with the common good. Left to their natural passions, individuals are driven by self-preservation and desire for gain, safety, and glory, which often put them in conflict with one another (the "state of war"). Private interests, when unchecked, lead to competition, diffidence, and glory-seeking, which are detrimental to the common peace and security.


-How do men come to agree?

    It is only through the establishment of a common power that individuals are compelled to act in ways that align their private interest in self-preservation with the common good of peace and collective security.


-What makes covenants hold?

    Covenants, which are essential for peace and security, derive their binding force from the presence of this common power.


-What is the common-wealth? And the Leviathan?

    The Commonwealth is defined as a multitude united under one person or assembly, whose authorized acts bind all members for common peace and defense. It is an artificial body created by covenant for the purpose of escaping the state of war and achieving peace and security. The Leviathan is the specific term Hobbes uses to refer to this artificial person or sovereign, which embodies the common power. It is the absolute, indivisible power that unites all individual wills to compel obedience, defend against invasion, and maintain internal order within the commonwealth.