Relevant Artwork: Bernice Akamine, Kuʻu One Hānau, 1999 (Hawaiian flag, metal frame, and recycled cardboard).
Key Themes of the Course
Examination of art and visual culture in relation to Hawaiian sovereignty.
How art has been a medium for resistance against imperial powers and the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom.
Agenda for Current Classes
Recap of the Hawaiian Kingdom overthrow.
Analysis of resistance to annexation.
Research Questions
How did Hawaiians use art to resist the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in the 1890s?
How have contemporary artists revisited and challenged these historical events through their works?
In what ways was art leveraged to justify the overthrow and promote annexation?
The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom
Context of Overthrow
Plantation Capitalism and Militarism:
Sugar plantations established in the 1830s; expanded by the 1850s.
Operations run mostly by descendants of missionaries.
In 1873, U.S. interests began to eye Hawaii for a military port (Pearl Harbor), described as “the key to the Central Pacific Ocean” by General John Schofield.
Economic Agreements
Reciprocity Treaty (1875):
Enacted due to the Civil War’s impact on the U.S. sugar market.
Aimed to balance economic interests of the white American business class in Hawaii and U.S. military interests.
Allowed sugar exports from Hawaii to the U.S. without tariffs, consolidating power among “the Big Five” sugar barons.
Military Leases:
U.S. granted a lease on Ford Island in Pearl Harbor for military use.
Political Shifts
Bayonet Constitution (1887):
Businessmen coerced King Kalākaua into signing this constitution, which reduced monarchical power and altered voting rights.
Limited voting rights to property owners (mostly Euro-American) and extended rights to non-citizens (e.g., Americans).
Queen Liliʻuokalani's Efforts in 1891:
Sought to overturn the Bayonet Constitution to restore monarchical power.
Immediate Events Leading to Overthrow
January 1893:
Queen Liliʻuokalani attempts to establish a new constitution.
Committee of Safety, with support from the U.S. minister, John L. Stevens, orchestrates the arrival of U.S. troops under the guise of securing American interests.
January 16, 1893: Approximately 162 armed marines from the USS Boston land in Honolulu.
Proclamation (January 17, 1893):
The Committee of Safety declares the establishment of a Provisional Government led by Sanford B. Dole, effectively abolishing the Hawaiian Kingdom.
Liliʻuokalani opts not to resist with force and temporarily resigns, expecting intervention from the U.S. government (reference to the Paulet Affair of 1843).
Historical Commemorations
Living History Pageant (1993):
In January 1993, a pageant recreated the events of the overthrow, attracting about 20,000 people and emphasizing the impact on Hawaiian self-determination and rights.
Organized by Hui Na'auao, it sought to educate the public about the historical significance and controversies surrounding the overthrow.
Resistance to Annexation
Provisional Government Actions
Immediately after the overthrow, the Provisional Government moved to annex Hawaii to the U.S.
President Cleveland ordered an investigation in response to public pressure and petition from Queen Lili‘uokalani.
Blount Report (July 1893):
Concluded that U.S. officials played a significant role in the overthrow and that invasion constituted an act of war.
July 4, 1894: Establishment of the Republic of Hawaii with Sanford Dole as president, awaiting a pro-annexation U.S. president.
Armed Resistance
Wilcox Rebellion (1895):
A planned armed rebellion led by Robert Wilcox aimed to restore the monarchy.
The plot was discovered preemptively, leading to the rebellion’s quick dissolution.
Liliʻuokalani was imprisoned on treason charges; she later abdicated to mitigate sentences for the rebels.
Petitions Against Annexation
1897 Treaty of Annexation:
Proposed by President McKinley but faced immediate opposition.
Hui Kālai‘āina and Hui Aloha ‘Āina organized large petition drives, collecting nearly 40,000 signatures against annexation.
Delegates presented petitions to the U.S. Congress and lobbied against the treaty.
Legislative Outcomes
The annexation formally occurred in July 1898, marked by the Newlands Resolution, which was not a treaty.
Legal Claims: Many scholars argue that Hawaii remains under illegal occupation and that the annexation was never legitimate under international law.
Contemporary Reflections
Legal and Social Considerations
Discussion surrounding the illegality of the 1898 annexation and sovereignty claims continue.
1993 Apology Resolution:
Signed by President Clinton, it acknowledged the role of the U.S. in the overthrow and the ongoing claims for sovereignty by Native Hawaiians.
Despite its acknowledgment, it lacks legal binding.
Artistic Responses
Bernice Akamine’s Kalo (2016-2024):
Installation at Ali‘iōlani Hale, symbolizing the resilience of Hawaiian culture amid ongoing struggles for sovereignty.