Chapter Seven: Democratic-Republican Rule — Study Notes

Election of 1800 and Political Realignment

• The Alien and Sedition Acts were laws that made many people unhappy. Thousands of people asked Congress to get rid of them in $1799$. They said the acts were unfair and against the Constitution.

• The presidential election of $1800$ changed who was in charge. The Democratic-Republicans took power. This ended 12 years of the Federalist Party being in charge.

• In the $1800$ election, John Adams (Federalist) ran against Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr (both Democratic-Republicans). Jefferson and Burr tied for the most votes. Adams came in third. Burr did not step aside for Jefferson.

• The Constitution says that if there is a tie in electoral votes, the House of Representatives decides. Each state gets one vote, and nine votes were needed to win. After 35 tries, Jefferson got $8$ votes and Burr got $6$ votes. No one had a majority, so the House members were very tired.

• Hamilton, a Federalist and Burr's enemy, secretly helped Jefferson win. He reportedly said Jefferson was "honest." Hamilton thought Burr was "the most dangerous man."

• Because of this difficult election, a new rule was added to the Constitution. This was the Twelfth Amendment (made official in $1804$). It says that people must vote separately for president and vice president. We still do this today.

• The Federalists lost the presidency and also most of their seats in Congress. The Democratic-Republicans now controlled both the presidency and Congress. This ended 12 years of Federalist rule and started about 24 years of Democratic-Republican power.

• The fight between Burr and Hamilton got worse. Burr eventually killed Hamilton in a gunshot duel in $1804$.

• The Federalist Party became very small. Most of them were in New England. Farmers in the South and West strongly supported the Democratic-Republicans. They liked the idea of supporting farming.

Jefferson’s First Term and the Revolution of 1800

• Thomas Jefferson became president. He wanted states to have more power and the federal government to have less power.

• In his first speech, Jefferson said states were better at managing local problems. He also said people should be free to work and improve their lives. He called his election “the Revolution of 1800.”

Jeffersonian Republicanism wanted to:

• Make the federal government less powerful by following the Constitution very strictly.

• Give more power to states than to the federal government.

• Make the federal government smaller by lowering taxes and spending less money.

• Help farmers, especially by giving them land.

What Jefferson did in his first term:

• He let the Alien & Sedition Acts expire.

• He stopped the whiskey tax and other taxes. He fired all tax collectors. He cut government spending by making the military smaller.

• He reduced the army to $3{,}000$ soldiers. He also stopped building large warships that the Federalists had planned.

• He closed almost all foreign embassies. Only those in Great Britain, France, and Spain stayed open.

• He did not get rid of Hamilton's money system. The programs for funding and collecting debt stayed. The national bank also stayed.

Problems in the West:

• Farmers in the West needed to use the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans freely. These were vital for sending goods from west of the mountains to other countries. Jefferson said New Orleans was very important, calling it “the globe’s one spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans.”

The Louisiana Purchase and Its Significance

• France, led by Napoleon, took control of New Orleans and the lands west of the Mississippi River from Spain. This worried Jefferson and western farmers.

• Jefferson sent people to France to buy New Orleans for $2{,}000{,}000$. He ended up buying the whole Louisiana Territory for $15{,}000{,}000$.

• Napoleon offered to sell all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi. This sale doubled the size of the United States.

• The Senate agreed to the purchase. They said it was allowed under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution (the commerce clause). This was the same rule Hamilton used for the national bank.

• Jefferson used the commerce clause to make the federal government more powerful. He wanted to help farmers but accepted a bigger government role to buy the land.

• Jefferson was happy about the new land for farmers. He told Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore it.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition:

• The expedition was paid for by Congress. It had about 45 soldiers. Their goal was to travel up the Missouri River, cross the Rocky Mountains, and reach the Pacific Ocean using the Columbia River. They traveled about $8{,}000$ miles in $28$ months.

• What came from the expedition: It helped people learn about geography, plants, animals, and Native American groups. It also supported the idea of America expanding westward.

Lewis and Clark and Native American Encounters

• Lewis and Clark said they represented a great country that wanted peaceful trade with Native people. This was partly to stop the British from being involved in the fur trade.

• Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman, was a very helpful guide. She was an interpreter and helped calm tribes, showing them the expedition meant no harm.

• The U.S. usually treated Native American tribes as independent nations. This meant they could make land treaties.

During this time, there were two main ways the U.S. dealt with Native Americans:

• Assimilation: This urged Native Americans to live and act like white Americans.

• Removal: This meant moving Native people west, away from white settlements. They would use the army if needed.

  • Jefferson tried to get land by trading with Native groups using debt. He would give them goods on credit. When they couldn't pay their debts, he would take their land.

  • Some groups falsely claimed to speak for larger tribes. This allowed large areas of land to be sold for things like whiskey and small items.

  • The way Native Americans were treated went against the idea of liberty and equality from the Declaration of Independence. It showed how hard it was to give “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” to Native people.

Barbary War and the Expansion of Presidential Power

• Pirates from the Barbary Coast had long made money from ships in the Mediterranean Sea. The leader of Tripoli declared war on the U.S. because the U.S. stopped paying them.

• Jefferson sent U.S. warships to the Mediterranean without Congress officially declaring war. This started the first Barbary War ($1801$). The U.S. Navy fought pirate ships. The U.S. lost one ship that was captured.

• A peace agreement was made. It included paying a ransom of $60{,}000$ to free the American sailors who had been captured.

• Jefferson's action, without waiting for Congress, gave more power to the president. This was despite his earlier complaints about President Adams doing similar things during the Quasi-War. This created an example that presidents often start military actions without a formal declaration of war from Congress.

• The war didn't completely stop piracy. But it showed that presidents were willing to use their power to protect the country's honor.

• Jefferson left office very popular. This was because he lowered the national debt, got rid of internal taxes, and doubled the size of the U.S. He also made the presidency stronger in foreign affairs.

The Embargo Act of 1807 and Domestic Backlash

• Britain and France were fighting. They were not respecting American ships or neutrality. Jefferson wanted to make them respect American rights by stopping all foreign trade. This was called the Embargo Act of $1807$.

• Congress allowed the embargo. The goal was to hurt Britain and France's economies by stopping trade. Jefferson thought this would make them respect America's neutral position.

• But the embargo hurt America greatly, especially in Federalist-leaning New England. Exports there dropped from $108{,}000{,}000$ to $22{,}000{,}000$ dollars.

• Harbors were full of ships that couldn't move. About $30{,}000$ sailors lost their jobs. New England business owners strongly opposed the embargo because it was causing huge economic problems.

• Jefferson allowed customs officials to seize ships suspected of smuggling. This was like policing and went against the right to a trial by jury.

• The embargo did not work well. It caused a lot of political and economic pain at home. It didn't do much to change what Britain or France were doing.

• After a lot of pressure, Congress canceled the Embargo Act three days before Jefferson left office. The policy lasted $15$ months and failed to get Britain or France to agree.

• Jefferson later said that even though these actions made him powerful, he was relieved to leave office. His actions helped to give future presidents more executive power.

Madison, War with Britain, and the War of 1812

• James Madison became president after Jefferson. He still had problems with Britain. Britain continued to take American sailors and stop U.S. trade.

• Britain also still occupied forts in the West. These forts were supposed to be given up after the Revolutionary War. This made Native Americans restless and made it harder for settlers to move west.

• By the early $1810s$, Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (the Prophet) tried to unite tribes. They wanted to fight against white settlers taking their land. Their group became a big concern.

• The War Hawks were young Democratic-Republicans. John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay led them. They pushed President Madison to declare war on Britain. They wanted to protect America's honor and gain more land, including Canada.

• Federalists in New England did not want war. They had economic ties with Britain. The country was divided, which showed that the war would be difficult and not everyone supported it.

• Congress voted to declare war on $June 18, 1812$. Democratic-Republicans supported it, and Federalists opposed it (House: $79$ to $49$; Senate: $19$ to $13$).

• America was not ready for war. The military was small, and the navy was weak because Jefferson had cut its funding.

• The War Hawks believed Britain was busy fighting Napoleon in Europe. They thought this would make it easier for America to win, especially in the South and West where people wanted more land.

The War of 1812: Campaigns, Turning Points, and Nationalism

• Early fights happened around the Great Lakes, the Ohio River Valley, and northern New York. No side won clearly at first.

• Tecumseh joined the British and other tribes to fight U.S. expansion. Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames ($1813$), which weakened Native American resistance.

The U.S. Navy did well, even though the British navy was stronger:

• Oliver Hazard Perry won a battle on Lake Erie ($1813$). This stopped the British from controlling the western lakes and helped America's military in the Northwest.

• The American ship USS Constitution fought the British ship HMS Guerrière. The Constitution showed how good the U.S. Navy was. It was called "Old Ironsides" because British cannonballs seemed to bounce off its strong sides.

  • In the South and Mid-Atlantic, British forces captured and burned Washington, DC (August 24, $1814$). They destroyed several government buildings.

  • Fort McHenry in Baltimore was bombed for 25 hours. This inspired Francis Scott Key to write The Star-Spangled Banner on $September 14, 1814$ (which later became the U.S. national anthem).

  • The war had mixed results. Diplomats in Belgium signed the Treaty of Ghent on $December 24, 1814$. This ended the war, and neither side gained much land.

  • Surprisingly, a battle happened two weeks after the treaty was signed: the Battle of New Orleans (January 8, $1815$). General Andrew Jackson led a diverse group (including French pirates, Choctaw Indians, western militia, and formerly enslaved people). They won a big victory against more British soldiers, killing more than twice as many British as Americans. This victory made Americans proud again and helped people support the war.

  • The end of the war helped create a strong feeling of national identity and pride.

The Hartford Convention:

• In December $1814$, Federalists from New England met in Hartford to list their complaints. Some even suggested leaving the U.S. and making a separate peace with Britain.

• The Convention asked for several changes to the Constitution:

  • Counting people for representation based on free persons, removing the Three-Fifths Compromise.

  • Needing two-thirds of Congress to let in new states.

  • Needing two-thirds of Congress to stop trade (embargoes).

  • Needing two-thirds of Congress to declare war.

  • Limiting presidents to one term and stopping presidents from the same state from serving one after another.

• The successful defense during the war and the victory at Baltimore made the Federalists look bad. This helped lead to the end of their party.

The Nation’s Rise: The New Adam and Nationalism

• After the war, people felt a strong sense of national pride. This led to famous cultural works.

• Francis Scott Key’s Star-Spangled Banner showed America's strength and inspired national character.

• A myth called the "New Adam" became popular. It described America as a fresh land, pure and untouched by Europe's problems. It was like a Garden of Eden where a new kind of person, pure and free from old-world corruption, would appear.

• The New Adam myth encouraged American writers and artists. They shaped national identity around ideas of the frontier and youthful energy. Important figures included James Fenimore Cooper, Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Walt Whitman.

James Fenimore Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales (started in $1823$):

• These books showed the frontier hero as the perfect American. This hero was independent, strong, and morally good because of nature.

• The hero's good morals and physical skills were seen as a reaction to the bad parts of settled, European-style society.

• Cooper's books suggested that civilization was often not good, while nature represented truth and goodness.

• The Leatherstocking series showed a growing American idea that valued youth. Each new book featured a younger hero. This meant the country wanted a younger generation to lead its future.

  • The New Adam myth and stories about the frontier shaped American identity in the early 1800s. These ideas had a long-lasting impact on how America saw itself.

Judicial Review and the Marbury v. Madison Prelude

• In his last days as president, John Adams appointed many Federalist judges. William Marbury was one of them, called a "midnight judge."

• When Jefferson became president, he told James Madison (his Secretary of State) not to give Marbury his official paper (commission). Marbury sued, asking the Supreme Court to make Madison deliver it, using a law called Section $13$ of the Judiciary Act of $1789$.

• The Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice John Marshall, ruled in Marbury v. Madison ($1803$). They said Section $13$ of the Judiciary Act was unconstitutional. This was because the Court could only make decisions if the Constitution specifically gave it that power. This power is called judicial review. So, the Court could not order Madison to deliver the paper in this case.

• This decision gave the Supreme Court a lot of power. It established judicial review, which changed the balance of power between the three parts of government. It also limited what Congress could do if it went beyond the Constitution.

• Jefferson thought the ruling was unconstitutional because it gave the courts too much power. But Marshall's decision made the judicial branch an equal part of government and a way to check the other branches. Over time, judicial review was used for both state and federal laws.

Postwar American Foreign Policy and Economic Realignments

• President Madison continued to have problems with Britain. Britain kept taking American sailors and stopping trade in the early 1810s.

• After the war, America felt strong and proud. It showed that the United States could stand up to a big European country, even if not every battle was a clear win.

• The political changes of this time created a two-party system. Democratic-Republicans were powerful in the early 1800s, but Federalists still opposed them in some areas.

Key Dates and Figures (Quick Reference)

• Elections/Rules: $1800$ election; Burr-Jefferson tie; Twelfth Amendment ($1804$).

• Louisiana Purchase: $1803$; cost $15{,}000{,}000$; doubled the country's size.

• Lewis & Clark Expedition: $1804–1806$; traveled $8{,}000$ miles in $28$ months; Sacagawea was a guide.

• Barbary War: $1801–1805$ (blockade, ransom); $60{,}000$ ransom paid.

• Embargo Act: $1807–1809/1810$; exports dropped to $22{,}000{,}000$; repealed three days before Jefferson left office in $1809$.

• War of 1812: war declared in $1812$; Battle of Lake Erie (1813); Battle of Tippecanoe (1811); Battle of New Orleans (January 8, $1815$); Treaty of Ghent ($December 24, 1814$).

• Hartford Convention: December $1814$; suggested changes to the Constitution to reduce Federalist power.

• Star-Spangled Banner: inspired by the defense of Fort McHenry, written on $September 14, 1814$ (U.S. national anthem).

• The New Adam and Leatherstocking Tales: Cooper’s books started in $1823$; helped shape American identity in the early 19th century.