Comprehensive Study Notes: Introduction to Media and Information Literacy (MIL)

Fundamental Concepts of Communication

  • Definition by Merriam-Webster: The act or process of using words, sounds, signs, or behaviors to express or exchange information or to express your ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc., to someone else.

  • Definition by Cambridge Dictionary: The exchange of information and the expression of feeling that can result in understanding.

The Two Basic Types of Communication

  1. Verbal Communication: This type of communication happens verbally, vocally, or through written words to express or convey a message.

    • Oral Communication: This happens through word of mouth, spoken words, conversations, or speech.

    • Written Communication: This happens through any written word or written sign utilizing language in a medium.

  2. Non-Verbal Communication: Refers to any communication shared without word of mouth, spoken words, conversation, or written languages. It relies on:

    • Signs and Symbols

    • Colors

    • Gestures and Body Language

    • Facial Expressions

The Process of Communication

A process is defined as a series of actions that produce something or lead to a particular result. The communication process refers specifically to the exchange of information (a message) between two or more people.

Key Elements of Communication:

  • Sender / Communicator: The person who initiates a message.

  • Receiver / Interpreter: The person to whom a message is directed.

  • Message: The verbal and/or nonverbal content that must be encoded by the sender and decoded by the receiver.

  • Channel / Medium: The vehicle by which the message is delivered and received.

  • Context: The setting and situation in which communication takes place.

  • Noise: Anything that interferes with the accurate expression or reception of a message.

  • Feedback: A response from the receiver indicating whether a message has been received in its intended form.

Models of Communication

1. Lasswell’s Communication Model (1948)

Formulated by American political scientist Harold Dwight Lasswell, this is a linear transmission model. He states that a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following sequence of questions:

Who⟶Says What⟶In Which Channel⟶To Whom⟶With What Effect?\text{Who} \longrightarrow \text{Says What} \longrightarrow \text{In Which Channel} \longrightarrow \text{To Whom} \longrightarrow \text{With What Effect?}

Research Area Analysis table:

  • Who: Control Analysis

  • Says What: Content Analysis

  • In Which Channel: Media Analysis

  • To Whom: Audience Analysis

  • With What Effect: Effect Analysis

2. Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Model (1948)

Designed by mathematician Claude Shannon and scientist Warren Weaver, this model was originally created for the Bell System Technical Journal to improve technical and telecommunication. It was later applied to human communication and famously introduced the external factor of Noise.

  • Information Source (Sender): Originates the message and selects the desired information.

  • Transmitter (Encoder): Converts the message into signals (e.g., sound waves or binary data) compatible with the channel.

  • Channel: The medium through which signals travel. Messages can be distracted by physical noise such as crowds or network transmission errors.

  • Receiver (Decoder): Converts the transmitted signals back into a message; this is the reverse process of encoding.

  • Destination (Receiver): The final targeted mind or place for the message.

3. Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication (1954)

This is a Circular Model that breaks traditional linear frameworks, showcasing communication as a dynamic, equal, two-way process.

  • Core Feature: Both parties take turns acting as Encoder, Interpreter, and Decoder. There is no separate sender or receiver as individuals perform both tasks simultaneously.

  • Feedback: This is the central feature of the model.

  • Semantic Noise: Introduced as a barrier occurring when the sender and receiver apply different meanings to the same words or phrases (e.g., technical jargon). This causes a deviation from the actual intent.

4. Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication (1957)

Proposed by Bruce Westley and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr., this model posits that communication does not begin when someone starts talking, but when a person responds selectively to environmental data or physical surroundings.

  • Contexts: Communication is viewed in Interpersonal (direct, fast feedback) or Mass Communication (indirect, slow feedback) contexts.

  • Gatekeeper (C): A channel or editor that intercepts information from an Advocate/Client (A) and filters/selects what is published to the Audience (B).

  • Feedback Loops: Visualized as multi-directional combinations.

5. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication (1960)

David Berlo's model lists structural factors for four primary elements (Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver) and asserts that the source and receiver must be on the exact same level of capability for optimal effectiveness.

  • Source and Receiver Attributes:

    • Communication Skills: Ability to read, write, speak, and listen.

    • Attitudes: Toward oneself, the subject, and the audience.

    • Knowledge: Familiarity and mastery of the specific subject context.

    • Social System & Culture: Values, beliefs, religions, and law governing communication.

  • Message Components:

    • Content: The entirety of what is said from beginning to end.

    • Elements: Accompanying codes like language, gestures, or body language.

    • Treatment: The packing and execution of how the message is delivered.

    • Structure: The logical arrangement and division of message parts.

    • Code: The system used (e.g., music, words, language).

  • Channel: Utilizes the physical five human senses: Hearing, Seeing, Touching, Smelling, and Tasting.

Understanding Media and Information

Key Definitions

  • Media: The plural form of medium, defined as ways or channels used to communicate information. It encompasses broadcasting and narrowcasting channels through which news, entertainment, education, data, or promotional messages are disseminated (e.g., newspapers, TV, radio, billboards, telephone, fax, internet).

  • Information: Data, knowledge, signals, or symbols derived from study, experience, or instruction. It is data set within a relevant context to become understandable.

  • Media Tools: Physical or digital instruments used to expand communication.

The Spectrum of Information Quality

  • Fake News: Sources that intentionally fabricate information or grossly distort actual reports.

  • Satire: Sources using humor, irony, and false information to comment on current events.

  • Bias: Sources operating from an explicit point of view relying on propaganda or decontextualized details.

  • Rumor Mill: Sources trafficking in gossip, innuendo, and unverified claims.

  • State News: Sources under direct government control within repressive states.

  • Junk Science: Sources promoting pseudoscience or scientifically dubious claims.

  • Clickbait: Questionable or sensationalized headlines designed to drive link clicks.

  • Propaganda: Systematic propagation of selective ideas by an interested party to encourage specific behavioral responses.

  • Misinformation: Erroneous or incorrect information that is intention-neutral (unintentional mistakes).

  • Disinformation: The lowest tier of quality; deliberately fabricated false statements disseminated intentionally to influence policy or deceive.

The Three Literacies and MIL Competencies

Core Literacies

  1. Media Literacy: The ability to read, analyze, evaluate, and produce communication in various media forms.

  2. Information Literacy: The ability to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, effectively use, and communicate that information.

  3. Technology (Digital) Literacy: The ability to use digital technology and tools to locate, evaluate, use, and create information.

Media and Information Literacy (MIL)

Traditionally separate, UNESCO now recognizes these as a composite concept. MIL is a set of competencies (knowledge, skills, and attitudes) allowing citizens to access, retrieve, understand, evaluate, use, create, and share media content critically, ethically, and effectively.

Seven Core Competencies of MIL (DW Akademie):

  1. Ability to access and locate suitable media and information sources.

  2. Ability to use and understand media to apply it to daily life.

  3. Ability to evaluate credibility, accuracy, and objectivity.

  4. Ability to create and produce media and information.

  5. Ability to participate by interacting with creators and editors.

  6. Ability to understand the internal workings and organization of media systems.

  7. Ability to recognize, demand, and defend quality media and information sources.

Characteristics of a Media and Information Literate Individual

  • Netiquette (Behave Properly Online): A combination of "net" and "etiquette." It entails respecting other users' views and displaying common courtesy in online discussion groups.

  • Exercise Critical Thinking: The ability to think clearly and rationally about what to believe or do, involving reflective and independent thinking.

  • Demonstrate Maturity: Displays sound judgment in the choice and consumption of media platforms.

  • Practice Digital Self-Protection: Knowing how to protect oneself and others on the internet.

General Terms

  • Preference: Selecting someone or something over others.

  • Habit: A recurrent, often unconscious pattern of behavior acquired through frequent repetition.

  • Lifestyle: A way of life or living of a person or group.

The Danger of Media Desensitization

Desensitization is a psychological process used to explain emotional reactions to media violence. Continued exposure can undermine feelings of empathy or concern toward victims.

  • Exposure Therapy Framework (Paul & Bernstein, 1973): Training individuals to engage in behaviors previously inhibited by anxiety by exposing them to anxiety-provoking items.

  • Systematic Desensitization: A clinical technique where a patient is gradually exposed to a graded series of anxiety-provoking objects.

  • Foa & Kozak (1986): Demonstrated that exposure to frightening stimuli (regardless of graduation) diminishes negative affect.

  • Physiological Impact (Cline, 1973; Thomas, 1977): Heavy viewers of media violence display less physiological reactivity and decreased general arousal when viewing violent clips compared to low-exposure viewers.

  • Real-World Consequences: Studies show that exposure to sexual violence in media leads to less sympathy and lower empathy toward rape victims.

  • Note: Resensitization can occur after a sufficient rest period.

Responsible Social Media Usage

Critical Benefits for Youth

  1. Thinking Critically: Deciding if messages make sense and identifying omitted information.

  2. Becoming a Smart Consumer: Identifying "persuasive intent" in advertising and evaluating credibility.

  3. Recognizing Point of View: Appreciating an author's unique angle and context.

  4. Creating Media Responsibly: Understanding personal messages have cultural impact.

  5. Identifying Media's Role in Culture: Recognizing how memes and celebrity gossip shape worldviews.

  6. Understanding Author Goals: Discerning if media is meant to inform, change minds, or introduce ideas.

Tessa Jolls (Center for Media Literacy) View: Media literacy enables individuals to free their minds and make personal judgments, forming the structural essence of a democratic society. It treats learning as a lifelong process extending past textbooks.

Evolution of Media Across Historical Ages

A. Pre-Industrial Age (Before 1700s)

  • Technological Milestones: Development of fire, paper from plants, and tools from stone, bronze, copper, and iron.

  • Papyrus (3000 BC): Egyptians manufactured this flexible writing material.

  • Smoke Signals: Standardized puffs (e.g., three puffs for danger).

  • Persian Postal System (540 BC): Established by Cyrus and improved by Darius. Utilized the 2,000-mile Royal Road; messages traveled 200 miles a day via horse-and-courier staging posts.

  • Pigeon Post (11th Century): Developed in Baghdad; Genghis Khan used pigeons to transmit news of conquests.

B. Industrial Age (1700s – 1930s)

  • Technological Milestones: Power of steam, machine tools, and iron production.

  • Gutenberg Printing Press (Mid-1450s): Movable type allowed the printing of the 42-line Bible on six presses simultaneously. Created "incunabula" (15th-century printed books).

  • Reformation Propaganda: 16th-century pamphlets fueled religious conflicts.

  • Postal Advances: 1630s royal monopolies under Thomas Witherings. The mail coach (1782) introduced by John Palmer outpaced individual postboys.

  • Optical Signaling: Claude Chappe’s semaphore towers using hinged arms.

C. Electronic Age (1930s – 1980s)

  • Technological Milestones: Invention of the transistor and electronic circuits.

  • Impact: Long-distance communication became efficient; over-the-air broadcasting brought the outside world into living rooms.

D. Information Age (1990s – 2000s)

  • Technological Milestones: Internet, digital convergence, and microelectronics.

  • Impact: Citizen journalism emerged; voice, image, and data became digitalized.

Deterministic and Normative Theories

Deterministic Theories

  • Technological Determinism: Technology is the primary driver of human history and cultural values.

  • Cultural Determinism: Culture and human needs dictate how technology is developed and utilized.

Normative Theories of the Press (Siebert, Peterson, & Schramm, 1956)

These describe how a media system should be controlled by government/authorities.

  1. Authoritarian Theory: Communication is under direct control of governing elites. Press is an instrument to enhance the ruler's power. Censorship is used to suppress harm to the state (e.g., King Louis XIV, Hitler, Mussolini).

  2. Soviet Media Theory: Based on Marxist-Leninist-Stalinist thought. State ownership of all media to serve the proletariat. Permits two-way communication (feedback) but journalists must support leadership.

  3. Libertarian Theory: Champions complete freedom from authority. Views humans as rational beings capable of discerning truth. Encourages publishing controversial content as "information is knowledge, and knowledge is power."

  4. Social Responsibility Theory (Hutchins Commission, 1949): Bridges the gap between Authoritarianism and Libertarianism. Media remains private but has obligations to public panels and self-regulation. Emphasizes "Interpretative" reporting (depth and context) over simple "Objective" reporting.

Types of Media and Convergence

Core Types of Media

  • Print Media: Paper and ink reproduced mechanically (e.g., Philippine Daily Inquirer).

  • Broadcast Media: Uses airwaves (e.g., 24-Oras, AM/FM radio like 90.7 Love Radio).

  • Film / Cinema: Motion pictures (e.g., MMFF entries, Jason Bourne series).

  • Video Games (Digital Games):

    • F2P MMO: No charge to join; revenue from ads and in-game sales.

    • P2P MMO: Must furnish payment to access.

  • New Media: Digital, interactive content using computers or the internet (e.g., YouTube, Facebook, Spotify).

Media Convergence

  • Technological Merging: Merging of previously distinct technologies due to digitization.

  • Economic Strategy: Media properties owned by companies employing networking to work together.

Local Context: Philippines

  • Filipinos have historically registered the highest percentage of internet usage globally, spending an average of 8 hours and 52 minutes daily online.

Theories on Media Effects

Media Effects are the intended or unintended consequences of what mass media does.

  • Third-Party Theory: People perceive media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves due to personal bias.

  • Reciprocal Effect: Media attention changes the behavior of the person or event being covered (increased self-consciousness).

  • Boomerang Effect: Media-induced change that is counter to the intended change, often caused by overly aggressive messaging.

  • Cultivation Theory (George Gerbner): Long-term TV exposure distorts social reality, leading viewers to perceive the world as more violent than it is.

  • Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): Media determines what the public worries about. It relies on Gatekeeping (control over content selection by editors/producers).

  • Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Analyzes how populations are manipulated and social attitudes fashioned through propaganda.

Regulatory Agency

  • MTRCB (Movie and Television Review and Classification Board): Official Philippine government agency responsible for rating and classifying all TV programs and films.

Information Sources and Selection

Four Main Sources

  1. Indigenous Knowledge (IK): Local knowledge unique to a culture (e.g., Hudhud Chants of the Ifugao). Relies on oral tradition and face-to-face exchange within community borders.

  2. Libraries: Structured access to validated, published materials (e.g., National Library of the Philippines).

  3. The Internet: Global network for immediate access; requires strict validation.

  4. Mass Media: Channels like broadsheets and news portals for current events.

Selection Criteria

  • Books: For deep, foundational history or peer-reviewed overviews.

  • Articles/Internet: For immediate data or specialized research.

  • Newspapers: For timelines of current events and localized updates.

  • Indigenous Sources: For folk medicine, community traditions, or uncodified history.

Evaluating Information Quality (Paul & Elder)

  1. Accuracy: Grammatically correct, verifiable, and necessary content.

  2. Author: Identifies who created the content.

  3. Currency: Information is updated frequently.

  4. Fairness: Balanced presentation of all sides of an issue.

  5. Relevance: Content is relevant to the topic.