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Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders: persistently harmful
thoughts, feelings and actions.
Mental Health Workers view psychological
disorders as a pattern of behavioral and
psychological symptoms that cause significant
personal distress, impairs the ability to function
in one or more important areas of life, or both.

Ultimately, to meet the criteria of a disorder,
one’s behavior is deviant, distressful, and
dysfunctional, and ultimately can impair one’s
ability to function.
Deviant: out of the norm
Distressful: causes discomfort for the individual
Dysfunctional: is maladaptive (unhealthy)

According to the National Comorbidity Survey
Replication (NCS-R), approximately 1 out of 4
(26%) American adults have experienced the
symptoms of a psychological disorder during the
previous year.

The NCS-R found that most people in the US
with symptoms of a mental disorder (59%)
received no treatment during the past year. Of
those who did, treatment provided was often
inadequate.
More often provided by general medical
practitioners than any kind of mental health
clinician.

Reason most do not seek mental health
treatment:
-lack of insurance
-low income
-live in developing countries or rural areas of
developed countries where facilities are not
available
-lack of awareness
-fear of being stigmatized

Multiple studies have shown that
people with a major mental illness
belong to one of the most stigmatized
groups in modern society.

Most people manage to weather psychological
symptoms without becoming debilitated and
needing professional intervention.
Reasons: mild/moderate symptoms diminish
with the passage of time and improvements of
the person’s overall situation.

Classifying Psychological Disorders
DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders. Presently, DSM-5 tr
System for classifying psychological disorders.
Classification: orders and describes symptoms
Ultimately used to identify disorders.
Main problem is the concept of labeling.
Labeling effects how we perceive others.

DSM-5 tr:
-describes more than 260 specific psychological
disorders.
-provides codes for each disorder.
-provides symptoms, frequency, typical course
and risk factors for each disorder.
-describes the specific criteria that must be met
for diagnoses.

Ultimately the DSM provides a common
language to diagnose and label mental disorders
and comprehensive guidelines for diagnosing
them.

According to the course text, the DSM
has been criticized for using arbitrary
cutoffs to draw the line between
people with and without a particular
disorder.

Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety: an unpleasant emotional state
characterized by physical arousal and feelings
of tension, apprehension, and worry.
Anxiety disorders: extreme anxiety is the main
diagnostic feature and causes significant
disruptions in the person’s cognitive,
behavioral, or interpersonal functioning.

Normal anxiety is reasonable and
infrequent as opposed to pathological
anxiety which is irrational and
persistent.

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): a person is
unexplainably and continually in a state of
tension, apprehension, and autonomic nervous
system arousal. Anxiety can be attributed to a
variety of factors.
Physiological symptoms of anxiety: heart
palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness,
sweaty palms, feeling edgy and shaking.

Panic Disorder: an anxiety disorder where the
anxiety suddenly and frequently escalates into a
terrifying panic attack.
Panic attack: a sudden episode of extreme
anxiety that rapidly escalates in intensity.
Unpredictable minutes-long episodes including
feelings of intense dread and terror, shortness of
breath, dizziness, heart palpitations, chest pain,
choking sensations and other frightening
sensations.

People with panic disorder are often hypersensitive
to the signs of physical arousal.
Triple vulnerabilities model of panic disorder
includes:
-a biological predisposition toward anxiety
-a low sense of control over potentially life-
threatening events
-an oversensitivity to physical sensations
All combine to make a person vulnerable to panic.

Agoraphobia: extreme fear of
experiencing a panic attack or other
embarrassing or incapacitating
symptoms in a public situation and
avoidance of situations in which
escape might be difficult or help
unavailable.

Somatic Symptom Disorders
Conversion disorder: a type of somatic symptom
disorder which involves a pattern in which
symptoms or deficits affecting sensory or
voluntary motor functions lead one to think that
a patent has a medical or neurological condition.
(partial paralysis, blindness, deafness, etc.) Does
not intentionally produce or fake symptoms and
can respond to treatment.

Phobias: a persistent and irrational fear of a
specific object, situation, or activity.
In the general population, mild irrational fears
that don’t significantly interfere with a person’s
ability to function and are very common.
Most cope without being overwhelmed with
anxiety so would not be diagnosis with a
psychological disorder.

Specific phobia (simple phobia): an excessive,
intense and irrational fear of a specific object,
situation, or activity that is actively avoided or
endured with marked anxiety.
Incapacitating terror and anxiety interfere with
the person’s ability to function in daily life.
(13% of general population at some point will suffer
from a phobia, and twice as many women as men)

Five Categories of Specific Phobia:
-Fear of situations (flying, driving, tunnels,
bridges, elevators, crowds, enclosed places)
-Fear of features of the natural environment
(heights, water, thunderstorms, or lightening)
-Fear of injury or blood (injections, needles,
medical or dental procedures)
-Fear of animals and insects (snakes, spiders,
dogs, cats)
-Other (vomiting, choking, clowns)

Social Anxiety Disorder (social phobia):
extreme and irrational fear of being
embarrassed, judged or scrutinized by
others in social situations.
Avoids specific places and situations
such as public speaking, eating out,
parties, etc. or will suffer while doing
so. Will ultimately appear as extremely
shy.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
(OCD): disorder in the category of obsessive
compulsive and related disorders,
characterized by intrusive, repetitive, and
unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or
repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an
individual feels driven to perform
(compulsions).
Ultimately believe will prevent something bad from
happening.

Most common types of compulsive rituals:
Washing
Checking
Symmetry and precision (Ordering/arranging)
Counting
Most common types of Obsessions:
Contamination
Pathological doubt
Violent or sexual thoughts

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
anxiety disorder characterized by exposure
to a highly traumatic event which results in
recurrent, involuntary and intrusive
memories of the event, avoidance of
stimuli and situations associated with the
event, negative changes in thoughts,
moods and emotions, and a persistent
state of heightened physical arousal.

Some people are more vulnerable to PTSD
because:
-vulnerability to PTSD can be inherited
-personal or family history of psychological
disorders are more likely to develop PTSD
when exposed to an extreme trauma
-magnitude of the trauma
-multiple traumas

Traumatic event: experiencing or witnessing
severely threatening, uncontrollable events with
fear, helplessness or horror. Can produce PTSD.
Acute Stress Disorder: the reaction from
traumatic stress from 3 days after the event that
can last for up to 4 weeks.
Without the extreme symptoms, Adjustment
disorder would be more appropriate.

Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative experience: a break or disruption in
consciousness during which awareness, memory
and personal identity become separated or
divided.
A temporary mild dissociative experience, A
temporary “break” or “separation” in your
memory or awareness, is normal.

Dissociative Disorders: a category of
psychological disorders in which extreme and
frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and
personal identity impair the ability to function.
Two categories of dissociative disorders:
1. Dissociative amnesia (can occur with or
without dissociative fugue)
2. Dissociative identity disorder

Dissociative Amnesia: dissociative disorder
involving the partial or total inability to recall
important personal information. Response to stress,
trauma, or an extremely distressing situation.
Dissociative fugue (fyoog): type of dissociative
amnesia involving sudden and unexpected travel
away from home, extensive amnesia, and identity
confusion.
Stress related though unclear why and how this
happens. When “awakened” person remembers
the past but not the fugue state.

Dissociative identity disorder (DID): (multiple
personality disorder) involves extensive memory
disruptions along with the presence of two or
more distinct identities or “personalities”.
Considered to result from efforts of traumatized
victims to detach themselves from the
experience of severe and prolonged abuse.

DID is usually associated with other
psychological disorders including major
depressive disorder, anxiety, PTSD.
Not all are convinced DID is a genuine
psychological disorder. 1970’s became popular
due to media.

Personality Disorders: maladaptive
patterns of thoughts, emotions, and
interpersonal functioning that are
stable over time and across situations,
and that deviate from the expectations
of the individual’s culture.

Cluster A: Odd, Eccentric Cluster of Personality
Disorders:
Paranoid Personality Disorder: exhibits pervasive mistrust
and suspiciousness of others. See others as out to get them
or as a threat.
Schizoid Personality Disorder: pervasive detachment from
social relationships, emotionally cold and flat, indifferent to
praise or criticism from others, preference for solitary
activities, lacking close friends, emotionless disengagement.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder: odd thoughts, speech,
emotional reactions, mannerisms, and appearance,
impaired social and interpersonal functioning.

Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, Erratic Cluster:
Antisocial Personality Disorder:
Borderline Personality Disorder:
Histrionic PD: shallow, attention-getting emotions
and goes to great lengths to gain others’ praise and
reassurance.
Narcissistic PD: exaggerate their own importance,
have lots of success fantasies, can’t accept criticism,
often responds with rage or shame.

Borderline PD: personality disorder
characterized by instability of interpersonal
relationships, self-image and emotions, and
marked impulsivity.
Views the world in black and white. Poor
impulse control, self-defeating behavior
including self harm, irrational emotions.

Biosocial Developmental Theory of BPD: the view
that bpd is the outcome of a unique combination of
biological, psychological, and environmental factors.
Some children are born with a biological
temperament that is characterized by extreme
emotional sensitivity, impulsivity, and more
negative emotions. More vulnerable to BPD esp.
when caregivers do not teach proper tools when
childrearing.

Antisocial Personality Disorder: most troubling
personality disorder, exhibits a lack of
conscience for wrongdoing, aggressive, ruthless,
clever con artists. Pervasive pattern of
disregarding and violating the rights of others.
Does not experience guilt or remorse.
Typically seen in childhood and adolescence.

Cluster C: Anxious, Fearful Cluster
Avoidant Personality Disorder: fearful sensitivity to
rejection.
Dependent Personality Disorder: excessive need to
be taken care of, submissive, clinging, fear of
separation, inability to assume responsibility
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: rigid
preoccupation with orderliness, personal control,
rules or schedules, that interferes with completing
tasks, unreasonable perfectionism.

Mood Disorders
Mood disorders: psychological disorders
characterized by emotional extremes that come
in two forms resulting in disturbed emotions
which cause psychological distress and impair
daily functioning:
1. Major Depressive Disorder
2. Bipolar Disorder

Major Depressive Disorder: A mood disorder
characterized by extreme and persistent feelings
of despondency, worthlessness, and
hopelessness, causing impaired emotional,
cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning.
Must last for 2 or more weeks.
Commonly the onset is the result of stressful life
events.

Often called the common cold of psychological
disorders as it is among the most prevalent
psychological disorders.
Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed
with major depressive disorder.
Considered due to a greater degree of chronic
stress in daily life combined with a lesser sense of
personal control then men.
Considered more prone to dwell on problems.
Both result in a vicious cycle.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): mood
disorder with episodes of depression typically
occur during the fall and winter and subside
during the spring.
More common among women and those who
live in northern latitudes.

Persistent depressive disorder (Dysthymic
Disorder): disorder involving chronic
feelings of depression that is often less
severe than major depressive disorder.
Ultimately a chronic case of the blues and
usually continues for years.

Depression is of the result of Learned helplessness:
self-defeating beliefs after experiencing
uncontrollable painful events.
Depressed people tend to explain bad events in
terms that are:
Stable (will last forever)
Global (effects everything, pervasive negativity and
internal pessimism, which often results in suicidal
thoughts and preoccupations with death)
Internal (it’s all my fault)

About 10% of those suffering with major
depressive disorder attempt suicide.
Pervasive negativity and pessimism are often
manifested in suicidal thoughts or a
preoccupation with death.
Abnormal sleep patterns are common with
sporadic awakenings throughout the night.

The Depressed Brain
The biochemical key is neurotransmitters:
messenger molecules that shuttle signals
between nerve cells.
Norepinephrine and serotonin are
neurotransmitters that are scarce (lower levels)
during depression.
Drugs that alleviate mania reduce
norepinephrine.

Bipolar Disorder: involving periods of extreme
euphoria and excitement and alternating
periods of normalcy, and sometimes periods of
incapacitating depression. (formerly called
manic depression)
Euphoric (manic) episodes: a sudden, rapidly
escalating emotional state characterized by
extreme euphoria (mania), excitement, physical
energy, and rapid thoughts and speech. Poor
sleep and grandiose thinking.

Symptoms of a manic episode:
-uncharacteristically euphoric and excited for several days
or longer
-unable to sleep but boundless energy
-wildly inflated self-esteem, supreme self-confidence
(often grandiose plans for obtaining wealth, power and
fame and sometimes delusional)
-rapid speech (thoughts race faster)
-easily triggered flight of ideas (shifts of topics)
-grandiose, agitated or verbally abusive when questioned

Consequences:
-run up bills
-disappear for weeks
-sexual promiscuous
-commit illegal acts
Far less common than major depressive disorder
and no differences between the sexes.

Cyclothymic disorder: mood disorder
characterized by moderate but frequent mood
swings that are not severe enough to qualify as
bipolar disorder.
Can have mood swings for two years or longer.
Usually perceived as being extremely moody,
unpredictable, and inconsistent.

Onset of Depressive and Bipolar disorders:
-genetic predisposition
-differences in the activation of structures in the
brain
-disruptions in brain chemistry (abnormal levels
of neurotransmitters
-stress
-cigarette smoking

Schizophrenia: psychological disorder in which
the ability to function is impaired by severely
distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought
processes.
Literally translated, means “split mind”.

Characteristics include:
1. Disorganized thinking: thoughts which are
fragmented, bizarre, and distorted by false
beliefs (delusions)
Delusions: false beliefs that persists despite
compelling contradictory evidence.

Types of delusions:
Delusions of reference: reflect the person’s false
conviction that other people’s behavior and
ordinary events are somehow personally related
to them. (They are talking about me, the TV is
talking to me, etc.)
Delusions of grandeur: belief that the person is
extremely powerful.

Delusions of persecution: believe others are
plotting against them or trying to harm them or
someone close to them.
Delusions of being controlled: belief that outside
forces (aliens, government, random people) are
trying to exert control of them.
Somatic: the belief that the person has a
physical defect or medical problem.

Jealous Delusions: cause a person to believe that
their partner is unfaithful and constantly look for
evidence that their belief is true.
Mixed or Unspecified Delusions:
Mixed delusions means that the person has
multiple types of delusions, but none are more
common than another.
Unspecified delusions don't clearly fit into a
specific category.

2. Disturbed Perceptions: perceive things that
are not there (hallucinations).
Most common, auditory and visual
hallucinations. Usually connected to delusional
thinking. Major episode, impossible to
distinguish from reality.

3. Inappropriate Thought Processes (Emotions and
Actions: deficits in behavioral or emotional
functioning.)
Perform senseless compulsive acts.
Flat affect (emotionless expression)
Catatonic (remain motionless for hours on end
followed by agitation)
Alogia: greatly reduced production of speech with
limited/brief, empty comments.
Avolition: inability to initiate or persist in even
simple forms of goal-directed behaviors (dressing,
bathing, engaging in social activities).

Categories of symptoms in Schizophrenia
include: Positive and Negative symptoms.
Positive Symptoms: experience delusions,
hallucinations, disorganized speech,
inappropriate behaviors. The presence of
inappropriate behavior.
Negative Symptoms: toneless voices, flat affect
(emotionless face), rigid bodies, alogia, and
avolition. Reduced emotionless expression. The
absence of appropriate behavior.

Causality:
Excess of receptors for dopamine, believed to cause
increased positive symptoms.
Genetic factors: beyond question.
Enlargement of the ventricles in the brain.
Abnormal shrinkage of brain tissue in the cerebral cortex.
Low brain activity in the frontal lobes.
Smaller than normal thalamus.
Prenatal viral infections
Loss of gray matter tissue and lower overall volume of the
brain is associated with clinical symptoms and decreased
cognitive functioning among those with schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia remains a baffling disorder with
no single biological, psychological, or social
factor as a causal agent.

The Psychological Therapies
Psychological therapy or psychotherapy: is a
planned, emotionally charged, confiding
interaction between a trained therapist and
someone who suffers from psychological
difficulties.

Most common therapeutic mentalities:
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Behavioral Perspective
Cognitive Perspective
Cognitive Behavioral Perspective (CBT)
Positive Psychology

Psychoanalysis
Developed by Sigmund Freud in the 1900’s.
Though a century ago, still influence many
psychotherapies today.

Freud assumed our psychological problems are
fueled by childhood repressed conflicts stored in
the unconscious.
It is the psychoanalyst’s job to bring these
repressed feelings into conscious awareness where
patients can deal with them.
As a result, patients develop more adaptive
emotions and patterns of behavior when they
achieve insight and resolve the unconscious
conflicts that were maintaining maladaptive
emotions and behavior.

Techniques in psychoanalysis include free
association and dream analysis:
Free association: the patient spontaneously
reports all her thoughts, mental images, and
feelings while lying on a couch.
The psychoanalyst usually sits out of view and
asks questions to encourage flow of associations.

Blocks in free association, such as sudden
silence or abrupt change of topic were thought
to be signs of resistance.
Resistance: the patient’s conscious or
unconscious attempts to block the process of
revealing repressed memories and conflicts.

Dream Interpretation (another important
psychanalytic technique)
Interpretations: explanations of the unconscious
meaning of the patient’s behavior, thoughts,
feelings or dreams.
Defensive responses increase resistance.

Transference: the patient transfer’s emotions
and desires originally associated with
significant persons in the patient’s life
unconsciously onto the psychoanalyst.
The therapist purposely remains neutral to
produce “optimal frustration” in the patient, so
they transfer and project unresolved conflicts
onto the psychoanalyst.

Traditional psychoanalysis is a slow therapeutic
process that may last for years, and the
traditional form is still used today.
However, most people are not seeking a
personality overhaul and are expecting help with
specific problems and want much quicker results.
(weeks or months, not years)
As a result, the development of psychodynamic
therapies.

Short-term psychodynamic therapies: type of
psychotherapy that is based on psychoanalytic
theory but differs in that it is typically time-
limited/short term, has specific goals, and
involves an active, rather than neutral, role of
the therapist.
Problems are quickly assessed in the beginning,
therapist and patient agree on goals.

Interpersonal therapy (IPT): A type of
psychodynamic psychotherapy that focuses on
current relationships and is based on the
assumption that symptoms are caused and
maintained by interpersonal problems.
Brief or long-term, highly structured, and
specifically identifies the interpersonal problem.
Used to treat eating disorders, major depressive
disorder, and interpersonal conflicts.

IPT focuses on 4 categories of personal problems.
1. Unresolved grief: problems dealing with the
death of significant others.
2. Role disputes: repetitive conflicts with
significant others. (spouse, family, coworker)
3. Role transitions: problems involving major life
changes (marriage, divorce, retirement)
4. Role transitions: absent or faulty social skills that
limit the ability to start or maintain healthy
relationships with others.

Humanistic Therapies: emphasizes people’s
potential for self fulfillment. Focus is on the
present, conscious, and taking immediate
responsibility.
Carl Rogers
Client Centered Therapy: focuses on the person’s
conscious self-perceptions rather than on the
therapist’s interpretations.

According to Carl Rogers’ Humanistic approach,
the client centered therapist ideally should
demonstrate:
Active listening with genuineness, unconditional
acceptance, and empathy.
Humanists emphasize the importance of self-
awareness and self-acceptance.

Behavior Therapies: applies learning principles to
eliminate a troubling behavior. Often use
systematic desensitization and virtual reality
exposure to treat disorders.
Doubt the power of self awareness and assume
problem behaviors are the problem.
Focus on Classical and Operant methods of
learning.

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning: learning where
neutral stimuli signal an unconditioned response
and later produces responses that are
anticipated and prepares us for the
unconditioned stimulus, referred to as
conditioning.
Counterconditioning: a procedure that
conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger
unwanted behaviors.

Two types of counterconditioning:
1. Exposure therapy: expose people to what
they normally avoid, eventually will become
less anxiously responsive to things that once
petrified them.
Common form: Systematic desensitization
2. Aversive Conditioning: the goal is substituting
a negative response for a positive one to
harmful stimuli.

Systematic Desensitization: Widely used type of
exposure therapy was developed by South
African psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe in the 1950’s.
Based on the same premise as
counterconditioning, involves learning a new
conditioned response (relaxation) that is
incompatible with or inhibits the old
conditioned response (fear and anxiety).

3 steps to systematic desensitization:
1. Progressive relaxation: involves successively
relaxing one muscle group after another until
a deep state of relaxation is achieved.
2. The behavior therapist helps the patient
construct an anxiety hierarchy: list of anxiety-
provoking images associated with the feared
situation arranged in a hierarchy from least
to most anxiety-producing.
3. The actual process of desensitization through
exposure to feared experiences.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: learning in
which behavior is strengthened if followed by a
reinforcer or diminished if followed by a
punisher.

Developed by Aaron T. Beck (initially a
psychoanalyst) while researching depression.
Cognitive Therapy (CT): approach is to teach
people new, more constructive ways of thinking.
Emphasize that emotional disturbances result
from consistent pessimistic ways of experiencing
personal situations. Problems are in the result of
negative ways of looking at things. Goal is to
change self-defeating beliefs. (Distorted thinking
and unrealistic beliefs.)

Beck’s Cognitive therapy (CT) has much in common
with Albert Ellis’s Rational-emotive behavior
therapy (REBT).
Both believe what people think creates their moods
and emotions, not the result of the event
themselves.
Difference: Ellis’s emphasis on “irrational” thinking
and Becks focus on distorted thinking and
unrealistic beliefs. So instead of arguing what’s
irrational, Beck tests the accuracy of the
assumptions and beliefs.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): uses a
pragmatic approach and involves a treatment
plan that integrates behavior modification
techniques and cognitive therapy techniques.
Aims to modify both self-defeating thinking and
maladaptive actions. (unhealthy behavior)

Group and Family Therapies
Family therapy: treats the family as a system.
Group therapy: people feel less alone, members
vent in a safe and supportive environment, and
therapists can observe how a clients interact
with others.

Evaluating Psychotherapies
Research indicates that clients are generally
satisfied with the effectiveness of therapy.
3 benefits attributed to all psychotherapies:
1. Hope. (placebo)
2. A new perspective
3. An empathetic, trusting and caring
relationship.

Controlled research studies evaluate the
effectiveness of psychotherapy by comparing
people who enter psychotherapy with a
matched control group of people who do not.
Result: The gains that people make as a result of
psychotherapy, including brief forms of
psychotherapy, tend to be long lasting.

To say that a psychotherapy treatment is
empirically supported means it meets the
following criteria:
-is based on known psychological principles
-has demonstrated its effectiveness
-has been subjected to controlled scientific trials

Research indicates the vast majority of
people who experience the symptoms of a
psychological disorder do not seek the help
of a mental health professional.

Research shows therapy works but revealed no
one type of psychotherapy as being superior and
there is little or no difference in the
effectiveness of different psychotherapies.

Eclecticism: A therapist (an eclectic therapist)
integrates use of techniques from different
psychotherapies. Will depend on the client and
symptoms.

In recent years 100’s of studies have evaluated the
effectiveness of the major forms of psychotherapy.
Research varies in terms of the types of
psychotherapy compared and the disorders studied
and how improvement is measured.
Spontaneous remission: refers to the improvement
of symptoms that sometimes occur simply over the
passage of time.

Psychiatrist: holds a medical degree, can
prescribe medication, and specializes in the
treatment of psychological disorders.
Psychologist: holds an academic doctorate (PhD
or PsyD) and specializes in psychotherapy.

Clinical psychologist: expertise in research and
assessment of psychological disorders and the
practice of psychotherapy. Academic doctorate
Counseling psychologist: licensed to practice,
has extensive training in assessing and treating
mental, emotional and behavioral disorders.
Treats less severe disorders in less restrictive
environments. Academic doctorate

The Biomedical Therapies
Biomedical therapy: often used to treat serious
disorders by physically changing the brain’s
functioning by altering its chemistry with drugs
or medical procedures that act directly on the
patient’s nervous system.
Most widely used biomedical therapy today is
drug therapy, the use of psychotropic
medications.

Psychopharmacology: the study of
drug effects on the mind and
behavior.

Antipsychotic medications: prescription drugs
that are used to reduce psychotic symptoms by
blocking receptor sites for dopamine.
Used to dampen responsiveness to irrelevant
stimuli and decreases positive symptoms in
schizophrenia patients by decreasing brain levels
of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
Reserpine and chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
1950’s.
Also referred to as neuroleptics.

Antianxiety drugs: depress central nervous system
activity and calm the symptoms of anxiety.
Best known antianxiety drugs are Benzodiazepines:
medications which go by the name “tranquilizers”
because they calm jittery feelings, relax muscles
and promote sleep.
Valium, Xanax. Increases the level of GABA, a
neurotransmitter that inhibits the transmission of
nerve impulses in the brain and slows brain activity.

Antidepressant drugs: increases
neurotransmitters that elevate arousal and
mood which are scarce during depression.
Called SSRI’s (selective-serotonin-reuptake-
inhibitors) Increase serotonin levels.
First SSRI, fluoxetine (Prozac) then Zoloft and
Paxil.

Mood-stabilizing drugs: regulate
neurotransmitters to level out mood. Most
common, Lithium, and Depakote.

Brain Stimulation
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): biomedical
therapy used primarily in the treatment for
severely depressed patients (major depressive
disorder) in which a brief electric current is sent
through the brain of an anesthetized patient to
electrically induce a brief brain seizure.
Also called electroshock therapy.

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
(rTMS): pulses of magnetic energy to the brain
through a coil held close to the person’s skull
used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.

Deep-brain stimulation (DBS): a battery powered
neurostimulator is surgically implanted in the
chest and connected to electrodes surgically
implanted in the brain via wires under the skin,
sends electrical signals to the brain of a person
with major depressive disorder.
New experimental treatment and does not
involve seizures.

Psychosurgery: surgery that removes or destroys
brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.
Lobotomy: psychosurgical procedure once used
to calm uncontrollable emotional or violent
patients. (Not used for mood disorders.)
MRI-guided precision surgery: was occasionally
done to cut the brain circuits involved in severe
cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder.