Women in the Revolutionary War: Camp Followers and Their Diverse Roles
Women Who Followed the Army: "Such a Sordid Set of Creatures in Human Figure"
Introduction to Camp Followers
Following the American victory at Saratoga, New York, in October 1777, over defeated British and Hessian troops were marched to Boston for repatriation to England. Hannah Winthrop observed these "poor, dirty, emaciated men" but was particularly struck by the "great numbers of women" trailing behind. These women, whom she described as "beasts of burthen," carried bushel baskets filled with "Pots and Kettles, various sorts of Furniture, children peeping through … and other utensils," including "some very young infants who were born on the road." They were barefoot, dressed in rags, and emitted a powerful "effluvia" due to their harsh conditions. Winthrop found them so shocking that she wrote, "I never had the least Idea… that the Creation produced such a sordid set of creatures in human Figure."
Similarly, militia private Daniel Granger noted nearly women, described as "silent, civil, and looked quite subdued," wearing "short Petty coats" and being "bare footed & bare Leged" despite the October chill. They were burdened by large packs and carried children, conveying an air of resignation.
These women were known by various names: American civilians called them "camp followers," the British referred to them as "trulls" or "doxies," quartermasters listed them as "living pieces of 'baggage,'" and generals considered them "necessary nuisances." Despite the often derogatory terms, there was a widespread, if grudging, recognition of their indispensable roles within both British and American army camps and even on the battlefield. They served as cooks, washerwomen, seamstresses, nurses, scavengers for supplies, sexual partners, and occasionally as soldiers and spies.
Numbers and Demographics
The exact number of camp followers is unknown, with estimates ranging from thousands to tens of thousands. Their numbers fluctuated seasonally, increasing during winter encampments when armies were stationary and decreasing during active fighting. In the American army, the female population varied significantly by unit; regiments formed in war-torn or enemy-occupied regions naturally attracted more women than those from safer areas. Historians' estimates for American army camp followers range from a high of women to a more conservative of the total camp population.
For the British army, approximately women and a remarkable children experienced military camp life. While some women, typically wives of noncommissioned officers, arrived on British transport ships, the majority came from American cities and farms. The British, being better equipped and supplied than the Continental Army, attracted more camp followers. Given that five out of every six British soldiers were single, these women were often welcomed as "temporary 'camp wives.'" Most of these "camp marriages" dissolved when British soldiers returned home, but many of the Hessian mercenaries who deserted their regiments stayed in America, beginning new lives with the American women who had been their camp wives.
Motivations and Conditions of Life
Most women joined the armies due to dire circumstances: loneliness, poverty, the threat of starvation, or the risk of rape or death by hostile troops. The army camps often represented a "court of last resort" for wives, widows, runaway servants, and any woman facing destitution because of the war. Despite meager military rations and dismal camp conditions, shared tents and small meals were preferable to no food or shelter at all. In a paradoxical sense, becoming a camp follower was an act of grim, independent decision-making, leading many women hundreds of miles from their homes and friends. However, this survival did not equate to personal liberation; military culture was intensely hierarchical and male-dominated, reinforcing female dependency. While civilian women typically served as helpmates, camp followers were expected to provide domestic services like cooking, sewing, and washing for potentially hundreds of men. Attempts to resist stringent rules, excessive workloads, or meager pay were met with threats of punishment or banishment, with women "drummed out of the camp" serving as stark warnings.
Not all women in military camps were refugees. Sutlers and tradeswomen sold their goods, and prostitutes offered their services. Wives of generals and colonels came to boost their husbands' morale, organizing social events like dances and dinners, and typically returned home with the advent of spring campaigns. However, the majority of camp followers were from the lower ranks of society, mirroring the class distinctions between common soldiers and officers.
Officers, who might embrace refined notions of femininity for women of their own class, showed no such respect for poorer camp followers. These women were often perceived as oblivious to societal rules of feminine behavior, cursing and drinking like men, choosing to steal rather than starve, and appearing pregnant in public. An American officer famously described them as "the ugliest in the world… the furies who inhabit the infernal Regions can never be painted half so hideous as these women." Even unmarried enlisted men expressed contempt. Private Joseph Plumb Martin, observing a march in 1780, sarcastically remarked on their appearance, quoting a popular tune, saying, "'Tag, Rag and Bobtail'; 'some in rags and some in jags,' but none 'in velvet gowns.' Some with 2 eyes, some with one, and some I believe with none at all." He deemed them "odd and disgusting," a common sentiment likely colored by provincial attitudes.
Appearance and Physical Hardships
Women flocked to the armies out of necessity, often arriving with minimal possessions: perhaps a gown or two, a cloak, a petticoat, a few aprons, shoes, a blanket, and some children's clothing. After months of strenuous marching, sleeping in fields or crowded huts, and carrying burdensome pots, pans, and children, both the women and their attire became ragged. Lacking other options, they would readily don coats or shirts stripped from dead or dying soldiers, further contributing to their "odd and disgusting" appearance. Neither military nor civilian governments considered it their responsibility to provide clothing for these women and children. For instance, Governor Joseph Reed's novel recommendation to the Pennsylvania legislature to provide women of the Pennsylvania regiments with "a new gown, silk handkerchief, and a pair of shoes" was rejected.
Thomas Anburey, observing women marching through a heavy snowstorm with only "an old oil-cloth" for cover, concluded they were "of such a masculine nature, they are able to bear all hardships." However, their resilience was not inherent but a product of military life's hardening effects.
Driven by the need to feed themselves and their children, women often resorted to plundering and looting as the army moved through the countryside. A British soldier called them a "swarm of beings no better than harpies," and officers worried their actions would alienate local citizens. During battles, women were seen moving among fallen bodies, "expos[ing] themselves… where the shots were flying, to strip the dead," as recorded by Connecticut soldier Ambrose Collins, who deemed them "doubtless the basest of their sex." Collins, hardened by war himself, recounted seeing a woman thus employed "struck by a cannon ball and literally dashed to pieces" with little sympathy.
George Washington's Frustrations and the Indispensability of Women
George Washington found the presence of women in his camps particularly perplexing and annoying. Unlike the British army, camp-following was not a long-standing tradition in the American military, which typically relied on local militias called up only for short crises. In August 1777, Washington complained that "The multitude of women in particular, especially those who are pregnant, or have children are a clog upon every movement." Despite issuing eight army-wide orders directing women to march with the baggage and prohibiting them from riding on baggage wagons, his officers had little success in enforcing these commands.
Even Washington himself could not compel obedience. When the Continental Army marched through Philadelphia, he ordered women and children to use side streets, travel with the baggage, or remain outside the city. However, as one observer noted, these orders were ignored; women "poured after their soldiers again, their hair flying, their brows beady with the heat, their belongings slung over one shoulder, chattering and yelling in sluttish shrills as they went and spitting in the gutters." This scene starkly contrasted with the genteel volunteers led by Esther Reed, who were also in the city on fundraising missions.
Frustrated, Washington recommended that his officers "use every reasonable method… to get rid of all such as are not absolutely necessary." Yet, he paradoxically conceded that most women were indeed "absolutely necessary." He feared that a harsh policy would lead him to "lose by Desertion, perhaps to the Enemy, some of the oldest and best soldiers in the Service," as men needed the emotional comfort of their wives or mothers, especially when sick or wounded. One ailing soldier's plea, "Will you not send for my mother? If she were here to nurse me I could get well," underscored this reality.
Washerwomen
Beyond morale, women were crucial for basic hygiene. Dirty uniforms were a persistent problem, and men, traditionally accustomed to female relatives doing laundry, refused the chore. Both American and British armies therefore required camp followers to serve as washerwomen. Regiments like New York's 2nd and 3rd calculated necessary ratios: the 2nd Regiment needed women for men, while the 3rd, with men, required women (approximately washerwoman for every men). Maryland regiments had more humane ratios, setting it at woman for every men, or even for every men.
Soldiers were tasked with paying for these services, though wages were typically meager. British washerwomen earned pence a week for shirts. A June 1780 order at West Point specified prices for American camp followers who drew provisions with their companies: Shillings for a Shirt, Shillings each for Woolen Breeches, Vest, and Overalls, Shilling each for Linen Vest & Breeches, Shilling & Six Pence each for Linen Overalls, and Pence each for Stockings & Handkerchief. Resentment over low pay was evident; the 2nd Pennsylvania Regiment in 1778 issued a directive stating that any woman refusing to wash at these rates due to "laziness or any other improper excuse" would be dismissed or "drummed out of the camp" if she tried to remain with her husband. To make their arduous task easier, washerwomen often took shortcuts, such as doing laundry in the soldiers' drinking water.
The demand for washerwomen frequently exceeded the supply, leading officers to hire women from nearby towns or farms. However, the cost of cleanliness was significant. Colonel Ebenezer Huntington complained from Morristown in January 1780 that inflation meant his "Washing bill is beyond the limits of my Wages." He considered hiring a camp woman for himself and other officers but worried about potential gossip regarding the "nature of the woman's duties."
Nurses
The shortage of washerwomen led to poor sanitation in crowded army tents, creating a breeding ground for communicable diseases like typhus, dysentery, and respiratory illnesses, as well as debilitating infestations like lice. The American army, with fewer camp followers, suffered more from these deadly diseases, increasing the need for nurses. Washington and his officers recruited nurses both within and outside the camps despite the high risks of exposure to disease, unpleasant work, grueling hours, and poor pay.
Washington's own job description for nurses detailed their duties: "The NURSES, in the absence of the Mates [male attendants], administer the medicine and diet prescribed for the sick according to order, they obey all orders they receive from the Matron; not only to be attentive to the cleanliness of the wards and patients, but to keep themselves clean. They are never to be disguised with liquor; they are to see that the close-stools or pots are to be emptied as soon as possible after they are used… They are to see that every patient, upon his admission into the Hospital is immediately washed with warm water and that his face and hands are washed and head combed every morning… that their wards are swept over every morning or oftener if necessary and sprinkled with vinegar three or four times a day." For these extensive duties—sweeping, emptying bedpans, bathing patients, and disinfecting—nurses received only ration and cents per day, roughly of what surgeons and male attendants earned.
Bravery and Fortitude of Camp Followers
While camp followers typically performed traditional female roles, army life frequently demanded or inspired acts of bravery and daring usually associated with men. Joseph Plumb Martin, despite his negative views of some camp followers, was impressed by the courage of a woman at Fort Monmouth. The wife of an artilleryman, she attended her husband at his cannon during an engagement. A cannon shot passed between her legs, carrying away the lower part of her petticoat. Remarking with "apparent unconcern" that "it was lucky it did not pass a little higher, for in that case it might have carried away something else," she continued her occupation, earning Martin's grudging respect.
At the Battle of Brandywine, women of Pennsylvania's 6th Regiment were hailed for their heroism. Despite "frequently cautioned as to the danger of coming into the line of fire," these wives fetched water for their husbands and friends, filling empty canteens "during the hottest part of the engagement." General Washington's cook, Sarah Osborn, also displayed determination at Yorktown, cooking and carrying "beef, and bread, and coffee… to the soldiers in the entrenchments" under bombardment. The stamina of women on long marches also drew admiration; Sergeant Grier's "large virtuous and respectable woman" wife, during Benedict Arnold's expedition to Canada, waded through a swamp with her skirt held high, prompting a soldier behind her to declare his mind "humbled, yet astonished at the exertions of this good woman."
Crossdressing Soldiers
Women who disguised themselves as male soldiers were met with ambivalence, with their motivations often determining whether they received admiration or contempt. Women driven by devotion to a man were generally admired, while those seemingly enticed by enlistment bounties were condemned. Calculated deception was viewed more harshly than spontaneous gender crossing. Moreover, women whose sex was quickly discovered often faced severe punishment, whereas those who served in combat before detection sometimes earned praise.
Examples of admired or sympathetic cases include: groups of women who dressed as men to make fort defenders appear more numerous; Anna Maria Lane, who enlisted with her husband in men's clothing and later received a pension; and a tale of a woman who disguised herself to journey to America and find her wounded fiancé after cruel separation, enduring "such fatigue as scarce any of her sex could have undergone." Margaret Corbin, who took her husband's place in battle at Fort Washington, was wounded, captured, and became a permanently disabled veteran, also received a pension.
In contrast, those perceived as defrauding the army were punished. Ann Bailey, for collecting an enlistment bounty by posing as Samuel Gay, was discharged, fined, and jailed for two weeks. Anne Smith, enlisting as Samuel Smith, was condemned and jailed not only for attempting to collect an enlistment bounty under false pretenses but for her near-successful evasion. A newspaper reported she "acted the man so perfectly well through the whole, that she might probably have passed, had not the want of a beard, and a redundance of some other matters led to a detection." Even appeals to romance could fail; a young woman who enlisted in disguise because her father forbade her marriage was subjected to a physical examination and then ordered for "the Drums to beat her threw the Town with the Whores march" while still dressed as a man.
More successful masqueraders included Deborah Sampson, who served undetected as Private Robert Shurtleff for several years, receiving an honorable discharge and a veteran's pension when her sex was discovered. Sally St. Clair, a woman of French and African background, famously concealed her sex from the army until her death at the siege of Savannah in .
Problems Posed by Camp Followers
Despite their usefulness and bravery, camp followers presented the military with numerous challenges. Wives were known to incite arguments among soldiers or convince their husbands to desert. They illegally sold rum and liquor to troops, harassed and insulted "decent women" in towns, engaged in shouting matches with officers over provisions, rations, and sexual advances, cheated on their husbands, and stole from friends. British commanders in Boston in 1775 even suspected a smallpox epidemic among their men was brought by women looting quarantined houses. These infractions required the army to police, try, and punish them, often severely.
Punishments included: Mary Johnson receiving lashes for enticing desertion at Valley Forge, and Isabella MacMahan receiving the same for knowingly receiving stolen goods. Women found guilty of theft or prostitution could be ducked underwater, whipped, or drummed out. Winifred McCowan, a British camp follower in occupied Boston, was court-martialed for stealing and killing a bull; she was found guilty, tied behind a cart, given lashes on her bare back in public, and imprisoned for three months. The constant presence of women also compromised camp security, as both armies employed women as spies, with seemingly innocent tradeswomen gathering intelligence on military strength, strategy, or indiscreet soldiers.
Prostitutes and Venereal Disease
For the more morally conservative American military leadership, the presence of prostitutes was particularly troubling. Washington's army in New York City attracted an alarming number of prostitutes to a notorious meeting ground known as "Holy Ground" (a field owned by St. Paul's church). This area was not only decadent but dangerous, with reports of men's limbs and heads found, allegedly victims of murderous prostitutes. A colonel patrolling Holy Ground described the women as "bitchfoxy jades, jills, haggs, strums, prostitutes" and called his assignment "Hell's work." Another officer was appalled by their "impudence and immodesty" and "Brutallity," admitting that many officers and men frequented the site. When the British occupied New York in 1776, their soldiers also patronized prostitutes at Holy Ground and "Canvas Town."
Soldiers in the countryside were less discreet about prostitutes. Massachusetts-born Benjamin Gilbert's diary recorded visits from Betsy and Marcy; for instance, on April , Marcy "lay all Nigt with Serjt Phipps." Marcy and Polly Robinson were later arrested in May, and by June , Polly Robinson and Nel Tidrey were "drummed out of the Regt."
Both British and American commanders attempted to regulate the presence of prostitutes, primarily for health rather than moral reasons, as outbreaks of venereal disease reduced the number of combat-ready soldiers. In the fall of 1778, a doctor at Fredericksburg, New York, reported men hospitalized with VD; the following summer, West Point doctors noted over cases. Regimental orders were issued, such as one from a New York officer: "No Woman of Ill Fame Shall be permitted to Come into the Barricks on pain of Being well Watred under a pump, and Every Officer or Soldier who Shall Bring in Any Such woman will be tried and Punished by a Court Martial." However, as shown by the bustling activity at Holy Ground and Benjamin Gilbert's recorded visits to a brothel called "Wyoma," officials had limited control over prostitutes working outside camps or the men who visited them.
Even non-prostitute camp followers could be carriers of venereal disease. To protect his soldiers while respecting the modesty of married women, a Delaware regiment commander ordered an examination of "the Weoman belonging to the Regt." by the surgeon, except for married women whose husbands would undergo the examination instead. Any woman refusing examination would be drummed out.
Wives of Generals and High-Ranking Officers
The wives and mistresses of generals and other high-ranking officers were exempt from such humiliating examinations. They did not "belong to the army" in the same sense as camp followers receiving rations or payment, and thus were not subject to military regulation. American wives like Catharine Greene (wife of Nathanael Greene), Lucy Knox (wife of Henry Knox), and most notably Martha Washington, joined their officer husbands during winter encampments at places like Valley Forge and Morristown. Martha Washington faithfully made the long journey every winter, from Mount Vernon to Washington's camps, inspiring "fortitude." However, these women did not share the same hardships; Martha Washington and Catharine Greene stayed in comfortable nearby farmhouses, with doting husbands arranging the best accommodations. Many officers' wives arrived with their own servants or slaves; if more assistance was needed, enlisted men and African American slaves were assigned to their staffs.
The arrival of Martha Washington or Caty Greene signaled a makeshift social season for officers, offering a "charming diversion" from the grim realities of war. General Greene described a "little dance at my headquarters" as a "pretty little frisk." These wives organized balls, dinner parties, and engaged in matchmaking, such as for Alexander Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler. However, wartime shortages were evident; at one officers' party, admission required wearing "a whole pair of breeches." British generals' wives rarely made the transatlantic journey, although Baroness von Riedesel (wife of a Hessian commander) traveled to Quebec with her three children. Unaccompanied generals often acquired local "camp wives" or mistresses, sometimes with their husbands' consent. General William Howe, for instance, maintained a three-year relationship with Elizabeth Loring, known as "the Sultana," reportedly with the blessing of her husband, Joshua Loring, who was conveniently appointed commissary general of prisoners. This affair became the subject of popular poems and songs. Baroness von Riedesel was shocked to discover that many "cousins" introduced to her at British headquarters were actually mistresses who frequently had to absent themselves "on account of a certain cause" (childbirth).
Mistresses and a Redefined Understanding of "Camp Followers"
On at least one occasion, a British officer's mistress provided valuable information to the American army. Major Patrick Ferguson, a Scottish commander of loyalist troops, brought two "cooks" (mistresses) to the Battle of King's Mountain, South Carolina. One, Virginia Sal, was killed early in the battle and buried with Ferguson. The other, Virginia Paul, abandoned the British forces as the battle turned, helping an American officer identify and target the major. She rode out of camp with the American prisoners, reportedly "remarkably unconcerned" about her lover's death.
Modern readers often associate the term "camp followers" with figures like Virginia Paul or the prostitutes of Holy Ground. However, the term requires a broader definition to include women like Sarah Osborn, who cooked for Washington's soldiers during the Yorktown bombardment; Sally St. Clair, who died fighting at the siege of Savannah; the nurses who disinfected hospital floors and tended to the sick and wounded; the washerwomen who earned meager shillings; and the anonymous women of Pennsylvania's 6th Regiment who risked their lives to bring water to soldiers in the heat of battle. While the Hessian wives and the "tag, rag, and bobtail" women of the middle states' regiments may have appeared a "sordid set of creatures," a British army officer's insight ultimately captured their enduring spirit: "if [we] had destroyed all the men in North America," he said, "we should have enough to do to conquer the women."