AP Environmental Science Exam Review Vocabulary
Exam Overview
FRQ Skills are crucial. Practice analyzing questions, formulating responses, and supporting claims with evidence.
Science Practices assessed:
Concept Explanation: 13-20% (high expectation due to ease of information access). Focus on demonstrating a thorough understanding of key concepts.
Visual Representation: 6-8% (diagrams in textbook). Practice interpreting and creating diagrams, charts, and graphs.
Scientific Experiments: 10-14%. Understand experimental design, data collection, and analysis.
Data Analysis: 6-10% (diagrams and data). Develop skills in interpreting and drawing conclusions from data sets.
Mathematical: 20%. Master essential mathematical skills for environmental science, including calculations and data analysis.
Environmental Solutions: 26-34%. Focus on proposing and evaluating solutions to environmental problems.
Task Verbs: Understand the specific requirements of each task verb to provide appropriate responses.
Calculate: Show work with units and answer. Ensure all calculations are clearly presented and labeled.
Identify: Indicate or provide information about a specific topic. Be concise and accurate in your identification.
Describe: Provide relevant characteristics (answer, explanation, application). Offer detailed and comprehensive descriptions.
Explain: Provide information about how or why. Clearly articulate the processes or reasons behind phenomena.
Justify: Provide evidence to support a claim and explain how the evidence supports the claim. Develop strong arguments supported by evidence.
Make a Claim: Make an assertion based on evidence or knowledge. Ensure claims are well-reasoned and supported.
Propose a solution: Provide a proposed solution to a problem based on evidence or knowledge. Offer practical and evidence-based solutions.
Math to Know
Dimensional analysis: converting units (multiplication and division). Practice converting between different units of measurement.
Rate of change: . Understand how to calculate and interpret rates of change.
Percentage change:
Subtract the old value from the new value.
Divide by the old value.
Multiply by 100.
Population change or growth rate: . Understand the factors that influence population growth.
Rate = . Be able to calculate and interpret population growth rates.
Rule of 70: Doubling time of a population = . Use the Rule of 70 to estimate population doubling times.
Unit 1: Living World: Ecosystems
1.1 Availability of resources influences species interactions.
Predator-prey relationships: Understand the dynamics of predator-prey interactions.
Symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Differentiate among different types of symbiotic relationships.
Competition and resource partitioning. Explain how competition shapes resource use.
1.2 Global distribution and environmental aspects of terrestrial biomes.
Biotic factors: Characteristic communities of plants and animals.
Biomes:
Taiga
Temperate Rainforest
Temperate seasonal forest (Deciduous)
Tropical rainforest
Shrubland (chaparral)
Temperate grassland
Savanna (tropical grassland)
Desert
Tundra
Abiotic factors: water, latitude, geography, altitude, soil influence distribution. Understand how abiotic factors affect biome distribution.
Review climatographs and global maps. Practice interpreting climatographs and locating biomes on global maps.
1.3 Global distribution and environmental aspects of terrestrial and aquatic biomes.
Freshwater: streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. Understand the characteristics of freshwater ecosystems.
Marine: oceans, coral reefs, marshlands, and estuaries. Understand the characteristics of marine ecosystems.
Algae/plankton supplies large portion of global (CO2 exchange). Recognize the importance of algae and plankton in CO2 exchange.
Abiotic factors: Salinity, depth, turbidity, nutrient availability, and temperature. Understand how abiotic factors influence aquatic biomes.
Review diagrams: Zones in lakes and oceans (photic and aphotic zones). Know the different zones in aquatic biomes.
Carbon cycle (1.4)
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration is a short cycle. Understand how photosynthesis and cellular respiration cycle carbon.
Decomposition can release or sequester C in soil and ultimately create fossil fuels. Understand the role of decomposition in the carbon cycle.
Combustion of fossil fuels moves stored C more rapidly to atmosphere. Understand how burning fossil fuels affects the carbon cycle.
Nitrogen cycle (1.5)
Atmosphere is the main sink/reservoir for . Identify the main reservoir for nitrogen.
Nitrogen-fixation converts atmospheric into a usable form for plants (soil bacteria/symbiotic with legumes). Understand the process of nitrogen fixation.
Phosphorus cycle (1.6)
Major reservoir for P is in sedimentary rock. Identify the major reservoir for phosphorus.
No atmospheric form of P, so it is often a limiting nutrient. Explain why phosphorus is a limiting nutrient.
Hydrologic cycle (1.7)
Oceans are the primary reservoir for . Identify the primary reservoir for water.
1.8 Solar energy is acquired and transferred by living organisms.
1.9 Energy flows and matter cycles through the ecosystem/trophic levels.
Biogeochemical cycles recycle matter through ecosystems. Understand how matter is recycled in ecosystems.
Sun is the main energetic input through producers. Recognize the role of the sun as the primary energy source.
1.10 Energy decreases as it flows through ecosystems.
10% rule is explained by the laws of thermodynamics. Understand the 10% rule and its relationship to thermodynamics.
1.11 Food chains and food webs and their constituent members by trophic level.
Energy and nutrients move through ecosystems. Understand how energy and nutrients move through ecosystems.
Feedback loops (negative and positive) play a role in ecosystems. Understand the role of feedback loops in regulating ecosystems.
Unit 2 Living World: Biodiversity
2.1 Levels of biodiversity and their importance.
Biodiversity measured through genetic, species, and habitat levels. Understand the different levels of biodiversity.
Greater diversity allows for greater resilience and recovery. Explain how biodiversity contributes to ecosystem resilience.
Population bottlenecks can lead to loss of genetic diversity. Understand the effects of population bottlenecks.
Species richness refers to the number of different species. Define species richness.
2.2 Ecosystem services.
4 types: Provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting. Know the different types of ecosystem services.
Describe the results of human disruptions to ecosystem services. Explain how human activities disrupt ecosystem services.
2.3 Island biogeography.
Islands are colonized, therefore size and distance from mainland influences diversity. Explain how island size and distance affect biodiversity.
Island species are often specialists and vulnerable to invasive species. Understand the vulnerability of island species.
2.4 Ecosystem tolerance/species range of tolerance.
2.5 Natural disruptions impact an ecosystem.
Climate and ice/sea levels have changed over geological time. Recognize that climate and sea levels have changed over time.
Climate or other major disruptions leads to change in whole ranges of habitats biome maps. Understand how major disruptions alter habitats.
Wildlife may migrate during times (seasonal or long term) of disruption or stress. Understand wildlife migration patterns.
2.6 Organisms adapt to their environment.
2.7 Ecological succession.
Primary (from abiotic) and secondary succession (from disturbance). Understand the differences between primary and secondary succession.
Pioneer species are part of early succession. Recognize the role of pioneer species.
Succession affects species richness. Explain how succession affects species richness.
Keystone species play a primary role in determining community structure. Understand the importance of keystone species.
Indicator species demonstrates characteristics or changes in ecosystems. Explain the role of indicator species.
Unit 3: Population
3.1 Differences between generalist and specialist species.
3.2 Differences between K and r-selected species.
Age of maturity, number of offspring, parental care and life expectancy. Understand the characteristics of K and r-selected species.
Ability to respond to competition, disturbance and invasive species. Explain how K and r-selected species respond to environmental changes.
Biotic potential. Define biotic potential.
3.3 Survivorship curves.
Type 1, Type II and Type III compared to r and K selected. Compare and contrast Type 1, Type II, and Type III survivorship curves.
3.4 Carrying capacity and its impact on ecosystems.
What happens when there is an overshoot. Explain the consequences of exceeding carrying capacity.
What causes changes in carrying capacity. Understand the factors that influence carrying capacity.
3.5 Resource availability affects population growth.
3.6 Age structure diagrams.
How does the shape tell you about growth rate? Interpret the shape of age structure diagrams to determine growth rate.
What information is found in the size of different age cohorts? Understand the information provided by age cohorts.
3.7 Factors that affect total fertility rate in human populations.
TFR reproductive age of females, educational opportunities for females, access to family planning and government policies such as health care, childcare and social security. Understand the factors affecting total fertility rate.
Infant mortality rate is also impacted by these factors and in turn impacts TFR. Explain the relationship between infant mortality rate and TFR.
When TFR is at replacement level fertility a population is stable. Understand the concept of replacement level fertility.
3.8 How human populations experience growth and decline.
Density dependent: storms, fires, heatwaves, earthquakes, and droughts. Understand density-dependent factors.
Density independent factors: access to clean water, food availability, disease transmission, clean air, access to resources. Understand density-independent factors.
Rule of 70 approximates a population’s doubling time. Use the Rule of 70 to estimate population doubling times.
3.9 The 4 stage demographic transition.
Unit 4: Earth’s Systems and Resources
4.1 Geological changes and events at plate boundaries.
Convergent boundaries: mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes. Understand the features and events at convergent boundaries.
Divergent boundaries: seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes and earthquakes. Understand the features and events at divergent boundaries.
Transform boundaries result in earthquakes. Recognize that transform boundaries cause earthquakes.
Determine patterns at plate boundaries on a map. Practice identifying plate boundaries on a map.
4.2 Characteristics and formation of soil.
Soil is formed from physical and chemical breakdown of parent material. Understand the process of soil formation.
Soil forms into different horizons (O, A, E, B, C). Know the different soil horizons.
Soil can be eroded by wind and water. Understand the causes of soil erosion.
4.3 Similarities and differences between soil types.
Water holding capacity varies with soil types and humus content. Explain how water holding capacity varies with soil type.
Particle size determines porosity and permeability. Explain how particle size affects porosity and permeability.
Soil texture diagram allows for the identification of soil type (% (sand, silt, clay) -read soil triangle. Practice using a soil texture diagram.
Chemical, physical and biological properties can be tested in soil to help farmers to determine soil health. Describe the importance of testing soil properties.
4.4 Structure and composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere.
Different gasses and temperature gradients lead to different layers. Understand the composition and structure of the atmosphere.
Earth surface-->Troposphere→ stratosphere → mesosphere → thermosphere → exosphere. Know the layers of the atmosphere.
4.5 Environmental factors result in atmospheric circulation.
Global wind patterns arise from unequal heating of the Earth (latitude) + the Coriolis effect. Explain the factors influencing global wind patterns.
4.6 Characteristics of a watershed.
4.7 How the sun’s energy affects the Earth’s surface.
Angle of the sun determines the intensity of solar radiation on the Earth’s surface. Explain how the angle of the sun affects solar radiation.
Spherical shape and tilt of the Earth on its axis cause different intensity at different latitudes and times of year (seasons).
Greatest solar radiation is at equator and least is at the poles.
Length of daylight is also changed due to tilt of earth and revolution around the sun.
4.8 How the earth’s geography affects weather and climate.
Climate changes with altitude (in a similar pattern to latitude). Explain the relationship between altitude and climate.
The rainshadow effect leads to wet weather on the windward side of mountains which block precipitation from reaching the leeward side. Understand the rainshadow effect.
4.9 Environmental changes and effects that result from El Nino or La Nina events.
Unit 5: Land and Water Use
5.1 Tragedy of the commons.
5.2 Forestry practices, such as clearcutting and their effect.
Clear-cutting is economically advantageous but leads to soil erosion, increased soil and stream temperatures and flooding. Understand the impacts of clear-cutting.
Forests contain trees that absorb pollutants and store carbon dioxide. Explain the ecological benefits of forests.
5.17 Sustainable Forestry: Describe methods for mitigating human impact on forests, and sustainable forestry practices.
Buying sustainably harvested (certified) wood products that are committed to reforestation and thinning (not clear-cutting) practices.
IPM can also be used on forests for health.
Prescribed burn is a method in which forests are set on fire under controlled conditions in order to reduce the occurrence or strength of natural fires. Can also start natural nutrients and seed cycles typically started by real firs.
5.3 Changes in agricultural practices over time.
First moved from hunter-gatherer to agricultural revolution (BC). Trace the evolution of agricultural practices.
The Green Revolution (1950’s-60s) allowed for increased food production using Monoculture, GMO, industrial machinery, fertilization, irrigation and pesticides. Understand the key components of the Green Revolution.
Industrial farming using Mechanization increases profits for farms but also increases use of fossil fuels. Explain the impacts of industrial farming.
5.4 Impact of Agricultural Practices.
Tilling. Understand the environmental impacts of tilling practices.
Slash-and-burn farming. Understand the environmental impacts of slash-and-burn farming.
Inorganic fertilizer use. Understand the environmental impacts of inorganic fertilizer use.
Pesticides. Understand the environmental impacts of pesticides.
5.5 Different methods of irrigation -& Pros and Cons.
Agricultural irrigation number 1 use of freshwater. Recognize that agricultural irrigation is the primary use of freshwater.
Types: Drip, furrow, flood, and spray irrigation. Compare and contrast different methods of irrigation.
Waterlogging occurs when too much water is left to sit in the soil inhibiting gas exchange in roots/soil. Understand the causes and effects of waterlogging.
Salinization occurs when the salts in groundwater remain in the soil when the water from irrigation evaporates. Overtime, soil salinity levels can be toxic for plants. Understand the causes and effects of salinization.
Aquifers can be severely depleted if overused for agricultural irrigation (ie. Ogallala Aquifer in USA). Recognize the risk of aquifer depletion.
5.6 Benefits and drawbacks of different methods of pest control.
Pesticides: herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides and insecticides are designed to be toxic to target species but are often also toxic to non-target species. Understand the impacts of pesticide use.
Pest species can evolve to be tolerant to pesticides, causing an increase in their application. Recognize the phenomenon of pesticide resistance.
Plants can be genetically modified to help with pest resistance but this can also lead to a lack of genetic diversity leaving entire crops susceptible to die-off/disease. Understand the pros and cons of genetically modified crops.
5.7 Different methods of meat production -& Pros and cons.
Free range grazing requires large areas, but manure is spread out and acts as natural fertilizer and animals do not tend to require antibiotics.
Overgrazing occurs when too many animals feed in a particular area of land. Causing a loss of vegetation, which leads to soil erosion.
Overgrazing can cause desertification.
CAFO (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations) is the industrialization of meat production. Used as a way to get animals quickly ready for slaughter. crowded and animals are fed grain and feeds.
Generate large amounts of manure in one area and off-gasses.
Animals standing in waste packed together get sick more easily so are often fed antibiotics in feed as well as growth hormones.
Animals from CAFO are often less expensive meat.
Run-off of animal waste can lead to cultural eutrophication.
Less consumption of meat could reduce , methane, and emissions, conserve water, reduce antibiotic resistance and improve topsoil growth.
5.8 Causes of problems related to overfishing.
5.9 Natural resource extraction through mining.
Surface mining is the removal of large volumes of earth, called overburden, in order access the ore or coal underneath. Understand the process of surface mining.
As more accessible ores and minerals are mined to depletion, mining operations are forced to access lower grade ores- the process is often more expensive and destructive. Recognize the challenges of mining lower grade ores.
Describe the economic and ecological impacts of mining (5.9)
Slag and tailings remaining after desired resource has been mined leaving destroyed habitat and run-off.
Acid mine drainage from coal piles or tailings.
During mining process PM/particulate air pollution is released into the air as well as methane and other (, from machinery).
5.10 Effects of urbanization on the environment.
Overdrawing of coastal aquifers can lead to saltwater intrusion. Understand the consequences of overdrawing aquifers.
Urban areas typically have more traffic and industry leading to an increase in air pollution (, ). Describe the sources of air pollution in urban areas.
Impervious surfaces lead to increased flooding. Explain how impervious surfaces increase flooding.
Urban sprawl is the change in population distribution from high population density areas to low density suburbs that spread into rural lands leading to potential environmental problems:
Decreasing farmable land.
Increasing driving.
5.13 Methods for mitigating problems related to urban runoff.
Planting trees and vegetation, permeable sidewalks/pavement, use of public transportation (less roads), and building up not out. Recognize strategies for mitigating urban runoff.
5.11 Variables measured in an ecological footprint.
5.12 Concept of sustainability.
Humans living on earth and their use of resources without depleting for future generations. Define sustainability.
Sustainable yield is the amount of renewable resources that can be taken without reducing the available supply. Define sustainable yield.
5.14 IPM- & pros and cons.
Reduce risk of pesticides of wildlife, water supply and human health
Biological: intercropping, crop rotation, natural predators.
Physical: traps, decoys.
Chemical: some minor types such as Bt.
5.15 Sustainable agriculture and food production practices.
Soil conservation: contour plowing, windbreaks, perennial crops, terracing, no-till agriculture, and strip cropping. Describe soil conservation practices.
Soil fertility: crop rotation, local manure, compost, green manure, limestone. Describe practices for improving soil fertility.
Rotational grazing: can reduce overgrazing and fertilize fields in rotation. Understand the benefits of rotational grazing.
5.16 Benefits and drawbacks of aquaculture.
5.17 Methods for mitigating human impact on forests.
Unit 6 Energy
6.1 Differences between nonrenewable and renewable energy sources.
6.2 Trends in energy consumption -& interpret data.
Identify where resources are found on a map. Practice locating energy resources on a map.
Differences of energy sources in developing and developed nations and parts of the world. Understand the differences in energy consumption patterns.
Industrialization and population growth increases global demand for energy. Explain how industrialization and population growth affect energy demand.
Government regulations and subsidizes influence energy use. Understand how government policies influence energy use.
6.3 Types of fuel and their uses.
Firewood and charcoal mostly used in developing countries. Recognize the primary fuels used in developing countries.
Peat; Coal: lignite, bituminous & anthracite. Understand the different types of coal.
Natural Gas & Methane- fracking and pipelines. Understand the extraction and transportation of natural gas and methane.
Crude Oil: drilling, tar sands-bitumen; moved by tankers & pipelines. Understand the extraction and transportation of crude oil.
Fuels refined into: gasoline, diesel, petrochemicals, or directly burned for heat → or turbine to electricity. Describe the refining process of fuels.
Cogeneration- uses both electricity and waste heat. Understand the concept of cogeneration.
6.4 Where natural energy resources occur-known and on map.
Describe the use and methods of power generation & Describe the effect on the environment.
Fossil fuels (6.5)
Releases CO, , and released on combustion.
Combustion for heat → steam→ turbine to electricity.
Extraction process leads to water and air pollution (VOC, etc.).
Nuclear energy (6.6)
Fission of Uranium-235 in fuel rods releasing heat and radioactivity.
No air pollution, but non-renewable source and radioactive waste.
Meltdowns, spills at (Chernobyl, Fukushima) have released radioactivity.
Biomass (6.7)
Releases CO, , , Particulates, VOC and released on combustion.
Can use waste from Agriculture, but can lead to deforestation.
Ethanol and biodiesel can be used to replace gasoline but often share other impacts with industrial agriculture.
Solar (6.8)
PV cells transform sunlight to electricity directly.
Active solar systems - like power towers convert and store solar energy.
Passive solar absorb heat/light directly: solar hot water heaters, architecture use of window alignment.
Hydroelectric (6.9)
Use kinetic energy of water flowing through a dam.
Tidal forms that use daily flow of water.
Geothermal energy (6.10)
Uses the heat from Earth’s interior create steam → turbine.
Not easily accessible in all areas of the world.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell (6.11)
Combustion releases water - cleanest fuel.
Currently technology & energy required to create and distribute fuel not cost effective.
Wind Energy (6.12)
Clean (no air and water pollution) source of energy converting kinetic energy of wind into turbines.
Can kill flying organisms such as birds and bats.
6.13 Methods for energy conservation - How is that different from energy efficiency?
Improved insulation, lighting sources, thermostat regulation help us in our homes, decreased use of hot water.
Green roofs.
Public transportation, BEV and hybrid vehicles.
Unit 7 Air Pollution
7.1 Sources and effects of air pollution.
Coal= CO, , , Particulates, and heavy metals such as mercury.
→ Industrial smog → Acid rain (Sulfuric Acid).
Fossil fuels= CO, , , VOC → Photochemical Smog (Ground Level )→ Acid Rain Nitric Acid).
Clean Air Act: EPA regulates: , , Particulates, CO, Lead, .
7.2 Causes and effects of photochemical smog and methods to reduce it.
+ VOC (sun catalyst)→ Photochemical Smog (Ground Level ).
Dry areas prone to more because rain reduces smog but causes Acid Rain (Nitric Acid).
Urban areas with many cars tend to have more at rush hour- forms into smog midday when sun catalyzes.
Smog contains (, PANs and Aldehydes) Oxidizers that irritate living tissue such as respiratory system and eyes.
7.3 Thermal inversion and its relationship with pollution.
7.4 Natural sources of and particulates.
7.5 Indoor air pollutants -& Describe their effects.
CO= Asphyxiant.
Particulates= asbestos, dust, smoke, mold.
Radon-222 (common natural source= uranium in bedrock/soils).
Enters through basements and foundations= remediated by ventilation.
Can cause Lung cancer.
Common anthropogenic: VOC & Formaldehyde- furniture, paint, carpeting, upholstery, and building materials.
Combustion indoors= CO, , , particulates, and chemicals in tobacco smoke.
7.6 How air pollutants can be reduced at the source.
Regulations: Clean Air Act.
Vapor recovery nozzles at gasoline pump (reduces VOC).
Catalytic converter- engines- [problematic CO, and hydrocarbons/VOC → changed to , , and ].
Wet and Dry scrubbers remove particulates and gasses from industrial exhaust streams (ie. scrubbers with lime - remove ).
Electrostatic precipitators- remove particulates.
7.7 Acid deposition. -& its effects on the environment.
Coal burning = → Industrial smog → Acid rain (Sulfuric Acid).
Fossil fuel combustion = , → Acid Rain (Nitric Acid).
Acid deposition can lead to lower pH (acidification) of soils and bodies of water.
Limestone can neutralize acid (found in bedrock or as treatment to lake).
7.8 Human activities that result in noise pollution and its effects.
High levels cause physiological stress and hearing loss.
Urban areas have more: transportation, construction and industrial activity.
Can mask communication, alter migration routes and cause stress in animals.
Unit 8 Aquatic and Terrestrial Pollution
8.1 Differences between point and nonpoint sources of pollution.
8.2 Impacts of human activities on aquatic ecosystems.
Range of tolerance.
Coral Reefs suffering: increased ocean temps, sediment run-off, harmful fishing practices (invasive species, eutrophication, ocean acidification).
Oil Spills.
Dead Zones cause by low DO- from cultural eutrophication- BOD- can cause an oxygen sag curve downstream from nutrient sources (sewage, fertilizers, decomposition, etc.).
Heavy Metals move into surface in ground water- threatening drinking water (from mining, industry, and fossil fuel extraction/refining/burning)- Mercury is converted to methylmercury in aquatic systems - then is able to be bioaccumulated and act as a neurotoxin.
Litter can be mistakenly consumed by animals and block digestive systems and introduce toxins into food chain.
Increased sedimentation- increases turbidity =reduces light infiltration reducing photosynthesis and visual predators ability to find food.
8.3 Sources and effects of endocrine disruptors.
Interfere with hormones and therefore homeostasis, reproduction, and development in fish and other species.
8.4 Impacts of human activity on wetlands and mangroves.
Ecological services of wetlands: water purification, flood protection, water filtration and habitat for birds (ecotourism) and nursery for fish (fisheries).
Threats: development, dam construction, overfishing, pollution/run-off from agriculture and industry.
8.5 Environmental effects of excessive use of fertilizers and detergents on aquatic ecosystems.
Step 1 nutrient load into water from sewage, animal waste, fertilizer run-off (Nitrogen & Phosphorus).
Step 2: Algal bloom due to increases nutrient load (photosynthesis).
Step 3: Bacterial bloom to consume algae- (cellular respiration) take all oxygen from water= hypoxic conditions.
Fish die off/ dead zone.
8.6 Thermal pollution effects aquatic systems.
Usually from industry or power plants using steam turbines.
Changes natural temps/ due to different ranges of tolerance - habits of local species is altered.
Warm water holds less DO than colder water.
8.7 Effect of POPs on the environment.
Persistent= do not easily breakdown in the environment, and tend to be fat soluble so remain/accumulate in tissue of animals.
Synthetic organic molecules such as PCBs, Dioxins, DDT, that are toxic/endocrine disruptors.
8.8 Process and effects of Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification.
Bioaccumulation is the selective absorption of molecules (typically fat-soluble/ heavy metals & POPs) by cells/organisms.
Biomagnification is a type of bioaccumulation in which the concentration increases with each successive move up the food chain/trophic pyramid.
8.9 Methods and effects of Solid waste disposal.
Solid waste can be generated in homes, businesses (municipal), or industry & agriculture.
Typically taken to landfills or incinerated.
Incineration reduces the volume of solid waste but releases air pollutants.
Some waste is not properly disposed of and ends up in watersheds→ oceans creating plastic islands/gyers, piles of tires can fill with water= mosquitos, or catch fire.
E-waste contains many heavy metals and toxic materials.
Sanitary municipal landfills use a bottom liners (plastic or clay), storm water collection, leachate collection and cover/cap methods to reduce groundwater contamination also collect methane that is released from decomposing organic waste (can be used for heating or generating power).
Landfills can be properly cleaned or capped and the brownfields can be reclaimed and turned into parks or other spaces.
8.10 Various strategies and and associated drawbacks of waste reduction methods.
Recycling reuses materials decreasing the need for more resource extractions- but collection and processing can be expensive.
Composting is the recycling of organic materials/food into soil products (can attract flies, rats and other pest species).
E-waste and other hazardous materials should be separated from regular municipal waste.
8.11 Best practices in sewage treatment.
Primary treatment= physical process= sorting to remove larger objects (like screens).
settling tanks- separate solid sludge and sewage water/liquid.
Secondary treatment= biological process =breakdown organic matter using bacteria in aeration tanks to remove Carbon and nutrients from water.
Tertiary treatment= uses physical (reverse osmosis) or ecological (wetland) to do a final level of purification.
If not a real tertiary step- disinfection is used before water is released (UV or Ozone filters, chlorine treatment) in order to kill bacteria.
8.12 Define LD50.
8.13 Evaluate Dose response curves.
8.14 Sources of human health issues that are linked to pollution.
Dysentery & Cholera are water-borne diseases associated with untreated sewage/ lack of proper sanitation.
Mesothelioma is a cancer caused by exposure to asbestos.
Respiratory illness is exacerbated by exposure to photochemical