Nationalism in India (1920s–1930s): Key Movements and Collective Belonging
Nationalism in India (1920s–1930s): Key Movements, Participants, and Collective Belonging
The making of modern nationalism in India emerged through anti-colonial struggle, bringing together diverse social groups under a shared sense of oppression and a common goal of freedom. The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi attempted to forge unity, but tensions among different classes and regions persisted.
This set the stage for the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements (1920s–1930s), which broadened participation and redefined political imagination in India.
1 The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation
Post-1919, the nationalist movement spread to new areas, incorporating new social groups and new modes of struggle. Key questions: How did these developments arise, and what were their implications?
War-time economy and politics:
Huge increase in defence expenditure financed by war loans and higher taxes: customs duties raised and income tax introduced.
Prices rose dramatically: P{1918} = 2 \, P{1913}, i.e., prices doubled between 1913 and 1918.
Rural Britain-like mobilization: villages supplied soldiers; forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
Post-war adverse conditions: crop failures in 1918–21 led to acute food shortages; an influenza epidemic struck; census 1921 records deaths due to famines and epidemic.
Emergence of a new mass leadership: Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 and developed the method of satyagraha (truth-force) as a non-violent struggle, non-violent but active resistance.
The idea of satyagraha (Gandhi’s dharma):
Emphasizes the power of truth and the need to search for truth; if the cause is just, physical force is not necessary to defeat injustice.
A satyagrahi persuades the oppressor to see the truth, appealing to conscience rather than inflicting harm. Non-violence is the supreme dharma and can unite Indians across differences.
Early satyagraha campaigns led by Gandhi (examples):
Champaran (Bihar) – 1917: peasants against oppressive plantation system.
Kheda (Gujarat) – 1917: peasants against revenue collection due to crop failure and plague.
Ahmedabad (Cotton Mill Workers) – 1918: organizing workers.
Rowlatt Act (1919):
Gave government sweeping powers to repress political activities and detain prisoners without trial for two years.
Gandhi called for nationwide satyagraha against the Act, starting with a hartal on 6 April 1919; rallied in cities; railways and telegraphs targeted.
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919):
General Dyer imposed martial law, fired on a peaceful crowd; hundreds killed; this event provoked widespread anger and mass actions across north Indian towns.
Gandhi initiated measures to control violence as the movement spread; he soon called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
Khilafat and turning to broader unity:
After WWI, Ottoman Empire’s defeat threatened the Khalifa’s temporal powers; a Khilafat Committee formed in Bombay (March 1919) by Muslim leaders (e.g., Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali).
Gandhi saw Khilafat as a unifying issue to bring Hindus and Muslims together under a broad non-cooperation platform.
Calcutta Congress session (Sept 1920) elected to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat and swaraj (self-rule).
Why Non-cooperation? (Based on Hind Swaraj, 1909): Gandhi argued that British rule rested on Indian cooperation; without cooperation, British rule would collapse and swaraj would come.
Key term: Boycott – refusal to deal with or participate in activities or purchase goods as a protest. (New words: Boycott)
The movement was to unfold in stages:
Surrender of titles conferred by the government; boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools; boycott of foreign goods.
If repressed, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
Gandhi and Shaukat Ali toured India (summer 1920) to mobilize popular support; internal Congress divisions arose over whether to boycott council elections (November 1920).
Nagpur Congress (December 1920): compromise adopted; the Non-Cooperation Programme approved.
How the movement unfolded and participated groups:
The movement began in January 1921 and drew in multiple social groups, each with its own aspirations under the banner of swaraj.
2 Differing Strands within the Movement
2.1 The Movement in the Towns (urban middle-class surge):
Thousands of students left government schools/colleges; teachers resigned; lawyers abandoned practices.
Council elections were boycotted in most provinces; Madras saw some participation by the Justice Party.
Economic effects: foreign goods boycotted; liquor shops picketed; foreign cloth burnt in large bonfires.
Import of foreign cloth dropped dramatically: from to (between 1921 and 1922).
Domestic manufacturing rose: Indian textile mills and handlooms gained momentum.
Challenges: Khadi cloth was often more expensive; alternative Indian institutions lagged behind, slowing the movement; many in cities returned to government schools and courts as substitutes.
2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside (peasant and tribal mobilization):
Awadh peasants led by Baba Ramchandra (a sanyasi who had been in Fiji) organized against exorbitant rents and cesses; peasant demands included revenue reduction, abolition of begar, social boycotts of oppressive landlords, and tenure security.
Oudh Kisan Sabha (Oct 1920) set up under Nehru, Ramchandra, and others; by Oct, 300+ branches across the region.
1921: Non-Cooperation linked to Awadh peasants’ struggles; landlords attacked; bazaars looted; grain hoards seized; Gandhian call invoked to justify actions; in many places, tax refusals and land redistribution calls arose.
Notable episodes:
Rae Bareli firing (6 Jan 1921) – Nehru’s appeal and his reflection on peasants’ bravery and his own momentary lapse toward nonviolence.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) – led by Vallabhbhai Patel; revenue enhancement resisted successfully; garnered national sympathy.
2.3 Swaraj in the Plantations (plantation workers’ role):
Assam plantation workers (tea gardens) defied Inland Emigration Act (1859) and left plantations; attempted to return home but were blocked by rail/sea strikes and were beaten by police on the way.
Their understanding of swaraj included freedom of movement and retaining links with their home villages; many hoped for land distribution but did not reach their destinations.
Other participants included tribal groups and workers in various sectors who faced harsh exploitative conditions under colonial rule.
2.4 Swaraj across diverse groups (summary):
Tribals like Alluri Sitarama Raju in the Gudem Hills (Andhra Pradesh) engaged in guerrilla actions; he claimed special powers, invoked Gandhi’s ideals but supported force for liberation; he was eventually captured and executed (1924).
Women’s participation in the movement increased significantly during the Salt March and civil disobedience campaigns, including women from high-caste urban families and wealthy rural households; they joined protests, manufactured salt, and picketed liquor shops; Gandhi emphasized women’s moral and service role, though the Congress initially limited women’s leadership roles.
2.5 Dalits and the limits of inclusion:
Untouchability remained a major fault line; Gandhi linked swaraj to ending untouchability, calling untouchables harijan (children of God).
Dalit leaders sought political empowerment (e.g., reserved seats, separate electorates). Ambedkar organized the Depressed Classes Association (1930) and clashed with Gandhi during the second Round Table Conference, leading to the Poona Pact (September 1932), which granted reserved seats to Dalits but within the general electorate rather than separate electorates.
2.6 Muslims and communal politics:
The Congress–Muslim League relationship deteriorated as communal tensions rose; Muslims felt alienated and worried about minority rights in a Hindu-majority national movement.
From the mid-1920s, Hindu nationalist groups gained influence; the All-India Muslim League under leaders like Jinnah argued for safeguards for Muslims, including separate electorates.
Iqbal’s 1930 address argued in favor of communal electorates as a safeguard for minority culture and political interests; this argument contributed to the later demand for Pakistan.
Key figures and documents:
Bhagat Singh and HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican Army) engaged in dramatic actions (e.g., 1929 bombing in the Legislative Assembly; attempts on Lord Irwin’s train). Singh defended revolution as the right of the laborer; his statement: “Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind… To the altar of this revolution we have brought our youth as incense…”
The movement included leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and M. A. Jinnah in various phases, reflecting both unity and tensions within the broader anti-colonial struggle.
3 Towards Civil Disobedience
3.1 The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1931):
Gandhi identified salt as a powerful symbol capable of uniting the nation; he issued eleven demands to the Viceroy Irwin on 31 January 1930, including the abolition of the salt tax.
If not fulfilled by 11 March, the Congress would launch a civil disobedience campaign.
Gandhi led the Salt March (Dandi March): from SabarmatiAshram to Dandi, a distance of about over , at roughly ; Gandhi’s party included 78 trusted volunteers; on 6 April they reached Dandi and violated the salt law, publicly manufacturing salt from seawater.
The Civil Disobedience Movement extended beyond salt laws to the boycott of foreign cloth, liquor shops, revenue payments, chaukidari taxes, and forest laws; arrests of leaders escalated; mass participation spread across provinces.
Government responses: a wave of arrests; violent repressions; public order measures; staged crackdowns on satyagrahis; incidents of police action and violence in various parts of the country.
3.2 Gandhi–Irwin Pact and the Round Table (1931–1932):
Gandhi decided to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1931 and entered into the Gandhi–Irwin Pact (5 March 1931), which allowed the Congress to participate in the Round Table Conference in London; some political prisoners were released as part of the pact.
Gandhi traveled to London in December 1931; Round Table negotiations failed to produce a settlement; upon return, the government resumed repression; Gandhi re-launched the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The movement persisted for over a year but gradually lost momentum by 1934.
3.3 How Participants Saw the Movement (Differing Imaginations of Swaraj):
The countryside saw swaraj as relief from revenue pressures and landlord oppression; rich peasants (e.g., Patidars, Jats) supported boycotts but some later withdrew when revenue issues remained unresolved.
Poor peasants and small tenants sought debt relief and rent remissions; the Congress was cautious about broadening the campaign to avoid alienating landlords and capitalists.
Some urban groups and workers participated selectively (e.g., Nagpur region workers; railway workers’ strikes in 1930; dock workers in 1932).
3.4 The Limits of Civil Disobedience:
Some groups, including certain Muslims, dalits, and some liberal segments, were wary of full non-violence and radical mass action; communal tensions and ideological divisions limited the movement’s universality.
The HSRA’s actions signaled that some freedom fighters favored faster, more radical methods; Bhagat Singh’s generation represented a shift toward revolutionary strategies within the broader nationalist project.
4 The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism grew when diverse groups recognized shared identity and purpose, often through collective struggles and cultural processes.
Symbols, imagery, and cultural revival played crucial roles in forging national belonging:
Bharat Mata: a key symbol of national unity. Origin: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s hymn “Vande Mataram” (1870s) and its inclusion in Anandamath; Abanindranath Tagore’s painting of Bharat Mata depicted as an ascetic, divine mother figure and later transformed in various forms and prints.
Visual culture and popular prints helped spread nationalist sentiment; leaders were often depicted with Bharat Mata or as offering sacrifice to the motherland.
Folklore revival: collecting ballads, nursery rhymes, and myths to highlight a glorious pre-colonial past and pride in traditional Indian culture (e.g., Tagore’s involvement in folklore collection; Natesa Sastri’s Tamil Folklore publication).
Flags and symbols:
Swadeshi movement (Bengal): tricolor flag (red, green, yellow) with eight lotuses representing eight provinces and a crescent moon for Hindus and Muslims.
Gandhi’s Swaraj flag (1921): tricolor with a spinning wheel at the centre, symbolizing self-help and non-violent self-rule.
Reinterpretation of history: nationalist historians emphasized India’s glorious past and achievements in science, art, and philosophy; the British portrayal of Indians as backward was challenged.
Visual debates on inclusivity: some Bharat Mata depictions drew from Hindu iconography and symbols, raising questions about whether such imagery could appeal to all castes and communities (e.g., Fig. 14a vs Bharat Mata variants).
Gender and sexuality in nationalism:
Women participated widely during Salt March and Civil Disobedience, marching, manufacturing salt, and picketing liquor shops; many were from upper-caste urban families or wealthy rural households.
Gandhi’s stance on women emphasized moral service, but the Congress remained cautious about formal leadership roles for women, focusing on symbolic presence rather than structural authority.
Education and history as nationalist projects:
The revival of folklore and emphasis on Indian achievements aimed to empower a sense of pride and inspire resistance to colonial rule.
The narrative of belonging also involved handling tensions among communities:
Hindu–Muslim relations worsened as the movement progressed; communal clashes increased, and negotiations for unity stalled by various internal and external pressures.
5 The Quit India Movement and Final Phases
The impact of WWII and the Cripps Mission contributed to growing discontent and a call for a decisive push for independence.
Quit India Resolution (Wardha, 14 July 1942): Congress Working Committee adopted a plan for complete withdrawal of British from India and demanded immediate transfer of power.
Do or Die speech (8 August 1942, Bombay): Gandhi’s call for mass, non-violent resistance on a massive scale.
The Quit India movement quickly became a mass movement involving students, workers, peasants, and ordinary people across the country; it brought thousands into action and saw significant participation by women and various regional leaders (e.g., Jayprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram Manohar Lohia; women like Matangini Hazra in Bengal, Kanaklata Barua in Assam, Rama Devi in Odisha).
The British response was forceful, leading to mass arrests and suppression; the movement endured for over a year but was ultimately contained.
6 Source Readings and Notable Quotations
Source A (Gandhi on satyagraha): Satyagraha as active, soul-force resistance that does not inflict pain or seek destruction; truth and non-violence as the highest dharma.
Source B: Jawaharlal Nehru’s reflections on the peasant movement in Rae Bareli (1921) and the moral complexities of non-violence in action.
Source C: Independence Day Pledge (26 January 1930) outlining the vision of complete independence and the right to alter or abolish oppressive government.
Source D: Allama Iqbal’s articulation of communalism and the justification for separate electorates as a safeguard for Muslim identity within a diverse Indian nation.
Source E: Tarinicharan Chattopadhyay’s historical commentary on Bharatbarsh and the shift from foreign travelers’ praise to current observations of national resilience.
Box 1 (Bhagat Singh): The revolutionary sentiment and the call for radical action; his famous lines: “Inquilab Zindabad!”
7 Key Dates and Milestones (Selected)
1913–1918: World War I period; prices doubled; inflation and hardship.
1917: Champaran and Kheda campaigns; Gandhi’s early satyagraha campaigns in India.
1919: Rowlatt Act; Jallianwalla Bagh massacre (13 April 1919).
1920: Calcutta/Khilafat decisions; Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement begins (Nagpur Conference, December 1920).
1921: Non-Cooperation movement expands; Awadh peasant struggles begin; Rae Bareli firing (Jan 6, 1921).
1922: Chauri Chaura incident; Gandhi withdraws the Non-Cooperation Movement (February 1922).
1928: Simon Commission arrives; “Go Back Simon” protests; Hindu–Muslim tensions in all-party contexts.
1930: Salt March (Dandi March) begins (31 January 1930); Gandhi’s 240-mile march to Dandi (6 April 1930).
1931: Gandhi–Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931); Round Table Conference (1931); Civil Disobedience Movement resumes later (1932).
1932: Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) widely celebrated; Poona Pact (1932) with Ambedkar.
1942: Quit India Movement (Wardha Resolution, 14 July 1942; Do or Die speech, 8 August 1942).
8 Exam-ready Prompts and Activities (from the box materials)
List the different social groups that joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921 and discuss their hopes and struggles.
Explain why the Salt March was an effective symbol of resistance and how it catalyzed the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Imagine you are a woman participant in the Civil Disobedience Movement and describe what the movement meant to your life.
Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates? Compare the Indo-China anti-colonial movement with India’s national movement.
Explain the concept of satyagraha and its ethical underpinnings in the Gandhi paradigm.
Write a newspaper report on either the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre or the Simon Commission protests.
Discuss the Poona Pact and Ambedkar-Gandhi disagreements over separate electorates; what did the Pact achieve?
Compare Bharat Mata imagery with Germania imagery from different chapters; discuss inclusivity concerns in nationalist iconography.
9 Key Concepts and Terms (glossary)
Satyagraha: non-violent, truth-centered mass resistance; active resistance, not passive.
Swaraj: self-rule; connotes freedom from colonial rule and self-governance.
Khilafat: movement to defend the Ottoman caliphate; linked to Hindu–Muslim unity under the banner of anti-colonial struggle.
Rowlatt Act: 1919 act enabling detention without trial; sparked nationwide protests.
Non-Cooperation: staged resistance through the refusal to cooperate with British institutions and goods.
Civil Disobedience: peaceful, organized disobedience to unjust laws; not passive.
Bardoli Satyagraha: 1928 peasant movement led by Vallabhbhai Patel; a significant rural success.
Poona Pact (1932): Dalit representation within the general electorate; compromise between Ambedkar and Gandhi.
Bharat Mata: symbol of national identity; depicted in prints and paintings to represent the nation.
Quit India Movement (1942): mass movement demanding an immediate end to British rule; Do or Die speech; massive participation.
10 connections and implications
Ethical and philosophical: Gandhi’s insistence on non-violence as a moral principle and a political method; debates about the ethics and efficacy of non-violent mass action versus revolutionary tactics.
Political: the interplay between mass movements and constitutional reform; how the British used legislative changes (e.g., Simon Commission, Round Table Conferences) to attempt to divide or co-opt the nationalist leadership.
Social: how nationalism intersected with caste, class, gender, and religion; the movement’s inclusivity and limits (e.g., Dalits, Muslims) shaped later independence politics.
Economic: wartime economic pressures and postwar depression reshaped demands (revenue relief, protection of industry, anti-foreign goods campaigns).
Cultural: iconography, folklore revival, and reinterpretation of history helped forge a shared national memory and pride; questions of inclusivity in symbolic representations.
11 Summary of Major Takeaways
Nationalism in India grew through anti-colonial struggle that unified diverse social groups while exposing deep differences in experiences and aspirations.
Gandhi’s leadership and the satyagraha philosophy reframed political struggle as a non-violent, morally grounded mass movement, though it faced internal and external tensions.
The Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements mobilized both urban and rural populations, but varied among different social classes and regions in terms of goals, methods, and outcomes.
The Salt March (1930) became a defining symbol, catalyzing nationwide participation and demonstrating the potential for symbolic action to mobilize broad segments of society.
The movement’s internal debates and the rising role of revolutionary groups, Dalit aspirations, and Muslim concerns foreshadowed the complex political landscape that would accompany India’s path to independence.
The Quit India Movement (1942) demonstrated the scale and urgency of the demand for independence, even as British repression intensified.
12 Quick references (LaTeX-formatted numbers and facts)
Price change during WWI: P{1918} = 2 P{1913}
Famine/epidemic deaths (1921 Census context):
Non-Cooperation movement start: listed as January 1921; Nagpur Congress decision: December 1920
Salt March distance: ; duration: ; daily pace:
Volunteers in Salt March:
Jallianwalla Bagh: date of massacre
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) – notable success in Bardoli taluka, Gujarat
Gandhi–Irwin Pact: date
Round Table Conference: 1931 (London, subsequent discussions)
Quit India Resolution: ; Do or Die speech:
Indispensable dates for quick recall: 1919 (Rowlatt Acts, Jallianwalla Bagh); 1920–22 (Non-Cooperation and Chauri Chaura); 1930–32 (Salt March and Civil Disobedience; Poona Pact); 1942 (Quit India).
13 Final tip for the exam
Be able to explain how Gandhi’s strategy evolved from Non-Cooperation to Civil Disobedience, and why different social groups perceived swaraj differently.
Know key dates, major events, and the main leaders associated with each phase (e.g., Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Ambedkar, Bhagat Singh, Jinnah).
Understand the symbolism (Salt, Bharat Mata, flag designs) and why symbols mattered for uniting diverse communities under a common nationalist project.
Be prepared to discuss the tensions within the movement (parties, classes, castes, and religious groups) and how those tensions influenced the trajectory toward independence.