ECHS Spring Final Exam Study Guide
ECHS Spring Final Exam Study Guide Notes
Unit 1: Scientific Method, Microview, & Living Molecules
Steps of the Scientific Method:
Observation
Asking Questions
Hypothesis
Experiment
Analysis
Conclusion
Communication
Theory of Spontaneous Generation: Living things can arise from nonliving matter.
Adhesion: The sticking of different substances.
Cohesion: The sticking of the same substances.
Effect on Water in a Tube: Water adheres to the tube's surface and coheres to itself, creating a meniscus.
Carbohydrates:
Organic compounds.
Functions: Energy.
Monomer/Base Unit: Monosaccharides.
Elements in Carbohydrates: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (e.g., Glucose: ).
Disaccharide: Two monosaccharides bonded together.
Storage Form of Glucose in the Body: Glycogen.
Proteins:
Large biomolecules.
Functions: Enzymes, transporting.
Monomer/Base Unit: Amino acids.
Structural Levels of Proteins: Amino acids.
Enzymes:
Proteins that lower activation energy.
Effect on Chemical Reactions: Speeds them up.
Nucleic Acids:
DNA and RNA.
Functions: Blueprint/genetic information.
Monomer/Polymers: Nucleotides.
Lipids:
Fats.
Functions: Storing energy.
Good Cholesterol: HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein).
Organ Regulating Fat: Liver.
Energy Release per Gram:
Lipids release the most energy per gram.
Macromolecules Calories/Gram
Protein 4
Lipids 9
Carbohydrates 4
Macromolecule with Most Stored Energy: Lipids.
Ch. 7 – Cell Structure, Function, and Movement
Cell Theory:
Cells come from pre-existing cells.
Basic unit of life.
Living things are made of cells.
Eukaryotic Cell: Complex cell with organelles.
Prokaryotic Cell: Simple cell.
Differences: Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells do not.
Structures in Both: Cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes.
Categories of Eukaryotic Cells: Stem and differentiated cells.
Peroxisome:
Breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies substances.
Organelle for Seed Germination: Not specified.
Vacuole:
Water and nutrient storage.
Organelle Maintaining Buoyancy: Cytoplasm.
Ribosome:
Organelle that synthesizes proteins.
Made in the nucleolus.
Organelle for Sorting, Modifying, and Transporting Proteins: Golgi apparatus.
Mitochondria:
Powerhouse of the cell.
Function: Facilitates cellular respiration.
Chloroplast:
Site of photosynthesis.
Found in plants and algae.
Function: Facilitates photosynthesis.
Mitochondria and Chloroplast Similarity: Both create energy.
Function of Cell Membrane: Controls movement of materials in and out of the cell.
Functions of Cytoskeleton: Structural support.
Cell Wall vs. Cell Membrane:
Cell wall is rigid and provides support and protection.
Cell membrane regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Cell walls are present in plant cells, bacteria, and fungi.
Ch. 8 Photosynthesis
Autotroph: An organism that makes its own food (e.g., plants).
Heterotroph: An organism that obtains food from others (e.g., animals).
Purpose of Photosynthesis: To convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
Products and Reactants of Photosynthesis:
Reactants: Carbon dioxide and water.
Products: Glucose and oxygen.
Balanced Equation:
Products of Light-Dependent Reactions: ATP and NADPH.
Alternative Pathways for Photosynthesis: C4 and CAM photosynthesis.
Chapter 9
Three Reactions of Aerobic (Cellular) Respiration:
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
Electron Transport Chain
Location of Each Stage:
Glycolysis: Cytoplasm
Krebs Cycle: Mitochondrial matrix
Electron Transport Chain: Inner mitochondrial membrane
Stage Generating Most ATP: Electron Transport Chain.
Cellular Respiration vs. Fermentation: Cellular respiration requires oxygen, while fermentation does not.
Types of Fermentation:
Lactic acid fermentation
Alcoholic fermentation
Products of Fermentation:
Lactic acid fermentation: Lactic acid
Alcoholic fermentation: Ethanol and carbon dioxide
Equation for Cellular Respiration:
Reactants: Glucose and oxygen.
Products: Carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.
Enzyme Involved in ATP Production: ATP synthase.
Ion Concentration Gradient for ATP Production: Hydrogen ions (H+).
Relationship of Photosynthesis and Respiration: Photosynthesis produces glucose and oxygen, which are used in cellular respiration. Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide and water, which are used in photosynthesis. They are complementary processes.
ATP Net Yield from Glucose: Approximately 36-38 ATP.
Chapter 10 & 11.4
Types of Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Reproduction from Union of Gametes: Sexual reproduction.
Cellular Division Resulting in Genetically Identical Offspring: Mitosis (asexual reproduction).
Diploid vs. Haploid:
Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes (2n).
Haploid: One set of chromosomes (n).
Human Numbers:
Diploid: 46
Haploid: 23
Cells:
Diploid: Somatic cells (body cells).
Haploid: Gametes (sperm and egg cells).
Stages of Interphase:
G1 phase: Cell growth and normal functions.
S phase: DNA replication.
G2 phase: Preparation for cell division.
Checkpoints:
G1 checkpoint: Checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors, and DNA damage.
G2 checkpoint: Checks for DNA replication completeness and DNA damage.
M checkpoint (Spindle checkpoint): Checks for chromosome attachment to spindle fibers.
Mitosis: Cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells.
End Result of Mitosis: Two genetically identical daughter cells.
Phases of Mitosis:
Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle fibers form.
Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
Telophase: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms, spindle fibers disappear.
Meiosis: Cell division resulting in four genetically different daughter cells (gametes).
End Result of Meiosis: Four genetically different haploid daughter cells.
Result of Crossing Over: Genetic variation by exchanging genetic material between homologous chromosomes.
Phases of Meiosis:
Meiosis I: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I.
Meiosis II: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II.
Nondisjunction: Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.
Result: Aneuploidy (abnormal number of chromosomes) in daughter cells.
Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis Daughter Cells:
Mitosis: Genetically identical.
Meiosis: Genetically different.
Types of Life Cycles:
Haploid life cycle
Diploid life cycle
Alternation of generations
Metamorphosis: A biological process by which an animal physically develops after birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's body structure through cell growth and differentiation.
Incomplete Metamorphosis: The insect hatches from an egg and then goes through several nymphal stages.
Complete Metamorphosis: The insect hatches from an egg and then goes through a larval stage, a pupal stage, and finally an adult stage.
Chapters 12 & 13: DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Three Parts of a Nucleotide:
Sugar (deoxyribose or ribose)
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G, or U)
Function of DNA: Stores genetic information.
DNA Replication: Process of making identical copies of DNA.
Product: Two identical DNA molecules.
Location: Nucleus.
Transcription: Process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Product: RNA molecule.
Location: Nucleus.
Translation: Process of synthesizing a protein from an RNA template.
Product: Protein.
Location: Ribosome (cytoplasm).
Information Coded in Genes (DNA): Instructions for making proteins.
Correct Order: DNA, RNA, Proteins.
Number of Amino Acids: 20.
Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence.
Inheritance Unit
Inheritance The process by which genetic information is passed from parents to offspring.
Chapter 11: Mendel and Meiosis
Genes: Segments of DNA that code for specific traits.
Alleles: Different versions of a gene.
Relationship: Alleles are different forms of the same gene.
Difference: Genes determine traits, alleles determine how those traits are expressed.
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a gene.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a gene.
Exceptions to Mendel’s Rules:
Incomplete dominance
Codominance
Multiple alleles
Polygenic inheritance
Linked genes
Chapters 14 & 15: Human Genetics & Biotechnology
Autosome: A non-sex chromosome.
Number in Human Diploid Cell: 44.
Sex Chromosome: A chromosome involved in determining sex.
Number in Human Diploid Cell: 2.
Sex Determination in Biology:
Chromosomal (XX/XY system)
Environmental (temperature-dependent sex determination in some reptiles)
Sex Chromosomes:
Males: XY
Females: XX
Sex-Linked Recessive Trait Expression: More likely in Males (since they only have one X chromosome).
Human Genome Project:
Goal: To map the entire human genome.
Genetic Engineering: Altering an organism's genes.
How it Works: Introducing, removing, or modifying genes.
Goal: To improve or modify organisms.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): A technique used to amplify a specific DNA sequence.
Recombinant DNA: DNA that has been combined from different sources.
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): An organism whose genetic material has been altered through genetic engineering.
DNA Fingerprinting: Analyzing an individual's unique DNA sequence.
Usefulness: Identifying individuals in forensic science.
Cloning: Creating a genetically identical copy of an organism.
Types: Gene cloning, reproductive cloning, therapeutic cloning.
Cloning of Extinct Animal: Reproductive cloning (somatic cell nuclear transfer).
Evolution Unit
Chapters 16-17: Evolution
Evolution: Change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.
Theory of Natural Selection: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
Natural Selection: Organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Early Evidence of Evolution: Fossil Records.
Vestigial Structure: A structure that has lost its original function over time (e.g., appendix in humans).
Homologous Structure: Structures in different organisms that have a similar structure due to common ancestry (e.g., bones in the forelimbs of mammals).
Similarities: Both provide evidence of common ancestry and evolutionary relationships.
Differences: Vestigial structures are functionless, while homologous structures may have different functions.
Population Bottleneck: A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events or human activities.
Founder Effect: The reduced genetic diversity that results when a population is descended from a small number of colonizing ancestors.
DNA Evidence: Examining variations in DNA sequences and phylogenetic trees.
Chapters 18: Classification
8 Taxa:
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Binomial Nomenclature: A two-name naming system for organisms (genus and species).
Usefulness/Importance: Provides a universal and unambiguous way to identify organisms.
Scientific Name for Humans: Homo sapiens.
Characteristics of Mammals:
Hair or fur
Mammary glands
Three middle ear bones
Characteristics of Insects:
Three-part body (head, thorax, abdomen)
Six legs
Antennae
Organisms Using Metamorphosis: Insects, amphibians.
Organisms Laying Hard Shelled Eggs: Birds, reptiles.
What can we learn by looking at phylogenetic trees: Evolutionary relationships between organisms.
3 Domains:
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
Classification According to Modern Classification: Based on evolutionary relationships (phylogeny) and genetic data.
Chapters 19: Origins of Life
Relationship between Oxygen Levels and Organism Size: Higher oxygen levels allowed for the evolution of larger organisms.
Cambrian Explosion: A period of rapid diversification of life forms in the Cambrian period.
First Organisms: Prokaryotic, anaerobic organisms.
Migration of Humans on Earth: Out of Africa theory.
Trends Observed in Earth Viewer Activity:
Temperature: Varies over time, with periods of warming and cooling.
Carbon Dioxide: Fluctuates and impacts the global temperature.
Day Length: Changes with the Earth's tilt and orbit.
Biodiversity: Has varied throughout Earth's history, with periods of mass extinction and diversification.
Ardipithecus: An early hominin genus.
Ecology Unit
Chapter 3
Definitions:
Producers: Organisms that make their own food (e.g., plants).
Consumers: Organisms that eat other organisms.
Carnivores: Organisms that eat animals.
Omnivores: Organisms that eat both plants and animals.
Herbivores: Organisms that eat plants.
Detritivores: Organisms that eat dead organic matter.
Decomposers: Organisms that break down dead organic matter.
Food Web vs. Food Chain:
Food web: A complex network of feeding relationships.
Food chain: A linear sequence of feeding relationships.
Food web is more realistic because it shows the complexity of ecological interactions.
Energy Transfer Between Trophic Levels: Approximately 10%.
The rest is lost as heat or used for metabolic processes.
Biological Magnification: The increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain.
Major Reservoirs:
Water Cycle: Oceans.
Carbon Cycle: Atmosphere, fossil fuels, oceans.
Phosphorus Cycle: Rocks, soil.
Geological Cycle Not Requiring Living Organisms: Water cycle.
Geological Cycle Not Involving the Atmosphere: Phosphorus cycle.
Chapter 4
Succession: The process of ecological change in an ecosystem over time.
Climate: The average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time.
Factors Influencing Climate:
Latitude
Altitude
Proximity to water
Ocean currents
Seasons in US Ecosystems: Due to the Earth's tilt on its axis.
Aquatic Biome vs. Terrestrial Biome:
Aquatic biome: A biome in a water environment.
Terrestrial biome: A biome on land.
8 Terrestrial Biomes and Climates:
Tropical rainforest: Hot and wet.
Temperate deciduous forest: Moderate temperature and rainfall.
Taiga (boreal forest): Cold and coniferous.
Tundra: Very cold and treeless.
Savanna: Grassland with scattered trees.
Desert: Very dry.
Chaparral: Hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.
Air and Ocean Currents Influence on Climate: Distribute heat and moisture around the globe.
Keystone Species: A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance.
*Examples: Sea otters, beavers, starfishSymbiotic Relationships:
Mutualism (+/+): Both species benefit (e.g., bee and flower).
Commensalism (+/0): One species benefits, and the other is not affected (e.g., barnacles on a whale).
Parasitism (+/-): One species benefits, and the other is harmed (e.g., tick on a dog).
Chapter 5 & 6 Populations
Exponential Growth: Population growth that occurs when resources are unlimited.
Logistic Growth: Population growth that occurs when resources are limited.
Predator-Prey Relationship: The populations of predators and prey fluctuate in a cyclical pattern.
Biotic Potential: The maximum reproductive capacity of a population under optimal conditions.
Factors Influencing Biotic Potential: Birth rate, death rate, age at first reproduction, litter size.
Carrying Capacity: The maximum population size that an environment can support.
When a population reaches carrying capacity: The growth rate slows down and stabilizes.
Conservation Biology: The study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.
*Examples of conservation methods: Habitat restoration and captive breeding programsAnthropocene: The current geological age, viewed as the period during which human activity has been the dominant influence on climate and the environment.