The New Era and the Great Depression Study Notes

Warren G. Harding took the oath of office as the 29th president of the United States in March 1921.
- Harding's campaign was marked by the promise of a "return to normalcy."
- He emphasized healing and restoration rather than revolution.
The United States grappled with the aftermath of World War I.
- Over 115,000 American soldiers died in the war.
- A flu epidemic between 1918 and 1920 led to nearly 700,000 deaths.
- Economic controls from the war led to stifling unemployment (up to 20%) and high bankruptcy rates among farmers.
Harding's presidency aimed to resonate with a population seeking stability, albeit the decade ahead would be anything but normal.
- The 1920s were characterized by conflict and change, leading to various monikers: New Era, Jazz Age, Age of the Flapper, Prosperity Decade, and the Roaring Twenties.

Harding attempted to stabilize the economy by signing a high protective tariff and dismantling wartime controls over industry.
Concerns about immigration and foreign populations arose from lingering effects of WWI.
- The economic decline led elites to sideline various socialist and anarchist movements as well as union activism.
The decline of the labor movement during Harding's presidency resulted in a loss of bargaining power for workers.
- Harding's administration was notably corrupt, exemplified by the Teapot Dome scandal.
After Harding's sudden death in 1923, Vice President Calvin Coolidge became president.
- Coolidge continued Harding's economic policies, emphasizing that the chief business of the American people is business.
- Tax reductions especially for wealthy individuals were promoted (from 66% to 20%).
Activism among women gained momentum in the 1920s after gaining voting rights through the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920.
- Women campaigned for social changes addressing issues like poverty, domestic violence, infant mortality rates, and education.
- The National Woman's Party pushed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA).
The 1928 presidential election saw Herbert Hoover, a wealthy humanitarian, and Democrat Alfred E. Smith, known for workers' rights but opposed by many due to his Catholic background.

The theme of mass consumerism emerged, with Christine Frederick's 1929 book stressing the need for manufacturers to cater to the purchasing power of women
- Frederick claimed women accounted for 90% of household expenditures.
Late 19th and early 20th centuries saw increased consumer products availability through industrial expansion, igniting a culture of consumerism.
Innovative department stores became key players in retail, providing an extensive variety of products and customer service.
- Marshall Field & Co. in Chicago exemplified retail strategy innovations.
The automobile industry's emergence transformed consumption patterns, promoting credit use and installment purchases.
- By 1927, 60% of cars were bought on credit.
- Household expenditures on appliances increased by over 120% from 1919 to 1929.
The late 1920s saw American cinema rise, coinciding with jazz music becoming mainstream, as radio brought entertainment to public homes.
- American pop culture thrived as the automobile facilitated freedom of movement and vacations, leading to a boom in related businesses (gas stations, diners).

Americans sought escape from societal restrictions through popular culture in the 1920s.
- The widespread appeal of films, jazz, and radio created new entertainment forms celebrated by a diverse audience.
The rise of the automobile allowed greater travel independence.
- The Indianapolis 500 became a prominent racing event drawing large crowds.
Hollywood magnified the significance of cinema, with the emergence of immersive movie theaters like Roxy Theater in New York.
- Film attendance skyrocketed as immigrants and marginalized communities created Hollywood's early success.
The 1920s was also marked by the emergence of figures like Charles Lindbergh, who became a national hero for making the first solo non-stop flight from New York to Paris.

The flapper symbolized heightened female independence, shedding Victorian modesty for urban episodic freedom characterized by bobbed hair, makeup, and public smoking.
Young women’s rejection of traditional constraints contributed significantly to shifting social norms, but reinforced consumerist stereotypes.
The experience of women varied across races and classes, with many unprotected jobs still under male dominance.
- The 1920s saw increased professional opportunities for women, yet most remained in lower-paying, gendered occupations (teaching, nursing).

The Great Migration contributed to a significant demographic shift, especially towards New York City, enhancing the cultural identity of African Americans.
- Harlem became the cultural epicenter for African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance.
The New Negro Movement represented a new ethos devoid of subservience, culminating in art, literature, and activism focusing on racial pride.
Notable literary figures like Alain Locke, Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston emerged, highlighting African American cultural achievements and stories.
Marcus Garvey advocated for Pan-Africanism and racial pride, fostering a sense of community among black Americans through initiatives like the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).

Amidst cultural reforms, radicalism faced backlash; the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti highlighted anti-immigrant sentiments and fears of socialism.
- The immigration legislation of the time, like the Emergency Immigration Act and the National Origins Act, sharply limited immigration from non-European nations.

The 1920s saw the rise of fundamentalist Christianity, opposing the perceived moral decline felt by conservative groups.
- The Scopes Trial featured a significant confrontation between fundamentalism and modernism over educational curricula on evolution.

A resurgence of the KKK during the 1920s was fueled by reactions against immigration, feminism, and racial integration, moving beyond its 19th-century focus of anti-black politics to a broader scope.
The Klan notably gained power politically, asserting influence in various states and even implementing projects aimed at promoting a white, Protestant America.

Herbert Hoover’s inauguration emphasized prosperity, yet it masked wide-scale economic disparity and instability.
The Roaring Twenties ended in economic turmoil, leading to the Great Depression as systemic issues in the economy came to the forefront.