Comprehensive Notes: Central America and the Caribbean (Tectonics, Tourism, and Trade)

Central America: Tectonics, Hazards, and Landforms (Nicaragua)

• Geographic setting: Nicaragua lies in a very tectonically active zone with significant interaction between two plates: the Caribbean plate and the Cocoa (Cocos) plate, with a subduction zone where the Cocoa plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean plate. This is analogous to similar plate interactions discussed for the western edge of South America (e.g., the Andes).
• Hazards from plate tectonics:
  • Earthquake risk: plate collisions heighten earthquake activity and risk to structures, especially in the capital city, Managua (spelling in lecture: Monagua).
  • Volcanic activity: there are several dozens of active volcanic systems in Nicaragua, and volcanism is closely linked to plate boundaries.
• Benefits of tectonic/volcanic activity:
  • Volcanic ashfall contributes to rich soils; in Nicaragua’s case, soils are some of the best in Central America due to long-term volcanic input.
  • Volcanic activity has also contributed to water resources, including major lakes and rivers.
• Hydrology and geography:
  • Two major lakes connected by a river network: Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua are linked by a river called the Tipi Topi River (note from transcript: "Tippy Top Of River"). The river connects the two lakes, creating interlinked water resources within Nicaragua.
• Summary takeaway: tectonism poses hazards (earthquakes, volcanoes) but has historically contributed to soil fertility and water resources that support agriculture and livelihoods.

Costa Rica: Landscape, Ecotourism, Economy, and Politics

• Landscape and ecology:
  • Central American mountains dominate Costa Rica’s topography, producing dramatic landscapes with canyons, forests, and a variety of ecosystems (biomes).
  • Volcanic peaks are prominent; the mountainous terrain contributes to the country’s picturesque reputation and biodiversity.
  • The nickname "Switzerland of Central America" reflects both the alpine-like scenery and the country’s organization and wealth.
• Economy and tourism:
  • Costa Rica is one of Latin America’s most prosperous countries, with a diversified economy including a strong focus on tourism, especially ecotourism.
  • Ecotourism is tourism focused on natural areas, emphasizing the flora and fauna in their native habitats and natural biogeography.
  • Flora and fauna definitions (for memory aids): Flora = plant life; Fauna = animal life.
  • Ecotourism brings substantial revenue; Costa Rica protects its natural areas as national parks and game reserves to safeguard these assets for visitors.
• Environmental and energy context:
  • The green areas on their national map are extensive (green indicates protected areas).
  • Costa Rica aims toward carbon neutrality and currently relies heavily on renewable energy; the lecture notes that they are very close to becoming fully carbon neutral.
• Political stability and military abolition:
  • Costa Rica is noted for long-standing political stability in Latin America and beyond.
  • Historical turning point: 1948 abolition of the military by José Figueres Ferré after a civil war; Costa Rica has no standing army since then.
  • Defence and sovereignty: the United States maintains a defense agreement, pledging to come to Costa Rica’s defense if sovereignty is threatened, but Costa Rica maintains domestic security through a small national police force.
  • Why abolish the military? The lecturer argues that strong militaries are often justified for domestic security; Costa Rica’s approach has yielded decades of stability and prosperity, making it one of Latin America's most economically prosperous and politically stable countries.
• Connections to broader themes:
  • Illustrates how political choices (e.g., abolition of the army) can influence long-term stability and economic development.
  • Demonstrates how ecotourism can drive economic growth while motivating conservation.
• Questions addressed in class:
  • NATO membership: Costa Rica is not a member of NATO; NATO is largely a European/US-Canada alliance.

Panama: The Canal Quest, Independence, and Relationships

• Central America's special case:
  • Panama is geographically in Central America but culturally/politically treated differently by some, due to its independence history and the canal project’s geopolitical dimensions.
  • Some Central Americans view Panama as not part of Central America because of American interference that helped Panama gain independence from Colombia and secure the canal rights.
• The Transoceanic Canal: rationale and early attempts
  • The desire for a shorter Atlantic-Pacific water route drove requests to build a canal in the isthmus.
  • Early ideas centered on Nicaragua and its lake connections, but the narrowest and most feasible route was Panama.
  • The canal project carried immense strategic and economic importance for global shipping.
• Ferdinand de Lesseps and the failed French attempt:
  • The French initial contract to build the canal was led by engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps.
  • The canal’s construction proved far more difficult than the Suez Canal due to Central American mountains, tropical rainforest, and climate with standing water that attracted disease-bearing mosquitoes (malaria, yellow fever, dengue).
  • The health crisis—tropical illnesses—caused massive worker deaths and halted the French effort.
  • The lesson: canal-building in Panama presented much higher engineering and logistical challenges than the flat Suez scenario.
• U.S. involvement and national interests:
  • The United States sought a Transoceanic canal for strategic and economic reasons and viewed Panama as the shortest feasible route.
  • The United States engaged with Colombian authorities (which controlled Panama at the time) and Panamanian independence groups.
  • In 1903, Panamanian independence was proclaimed; the United States immediately recognized Panama and supported it militarily (e.g., USS Nashville was deployed to deter Colombian interference).
  • A treaty arrangement on behalf of the American-backed canal project granted the United States rights to build and own a canal zone along the canal’s future corridor, creating a long-term U.S. territorial footprint (Panama Canal Zone).
• Construction and completion:
  • Despite initial setbacks, construction continued, and the canal opened in 1914.
  • The canal remained under U.S. ownership and control for decades, with a formal turnover negotiated in the late 1970s to 1999, when Panama assumed full control of the canal (the canal was officially turned over in 1999).
• Economic and geopolitical consequences:
  • The canal became a major global trade artery, generating substantial economic activity for Panama as a key transshipment hub.
• Current and historical tensions in the U.S.–Panama relationship:
  • The relationship has included moments of tension, particularly surrounding the canal’s control and sovereignty.
  • There is contemporary discussion about canal control under different administrations (e.g., mentions of recent U.S. concerns about regaining canal control under certain leaders), highlighting ongoing interest in the canal’s strategic value.
• Key takeaway:
  • The canal story illustrates the interplay of geopolitical strategy, economic interests, and local sovereignty, and explains why Panama’s status is viewed differently by some in Central America.

The Caribbean: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic

• Cuba: proximity, governance, and Cold War history
  • Location: Cuba sits about 90 miles off the coast of Florida.
  • Post-independence era: After independence from Spain (late 19th/early 20th century), the United States had strong economic and political influence; governance often aligned with American interests (banana republic dynamics in some periods).
  • Organized crime era: The early to mid-20th century featured significant American organized crime influence, with casinos and illicit activities tied to government toleration.
  • Batista era and Castro: Fulgencio Batista was toppled on New Year’s Day in 1959 by Fidel Castro and his revolutionary movement.
  • Cold War crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962) marked the closest the world came to nuclear war. The U.S. implemented a quarantine (often described as a blockade in retrospective terms) to prevent Soviet ships from delivering missiles to Cuba until they were removed; the term “quarantine” avoided an unequivocal act of war while applying strategic pressure.
  • Resolution and aftermath: The crisis ended with the removal of missiles from Cuba and from Turkey; the U.S. and Cuba remained adversaries for decades, with the relationship remaining tense.
  • Leadership succession: After Castro, Raul Castro took over; Miguel Díaz-Canel followed; the government remains Castro-era in philosophy and organization.
  • Current status: The U.S.–Cuba relationship remains antagonistic, with potential rapprochement possible only if significant political reforms occur in Cuba.
• Jamaica: economy, culture, and exports
  • The interior mountains and coastal zones support sugarcane production, along with related products like molasses and rum.
  • Bauxite reserves in the mountains contribute to aluminum production in the broader region.
  • Cultural export: Reggae music is arguably Jamaica’s most influential cultural export, popularized globally by artists such as Bob Marley and others in the 1960s–1980s.
  • Reggae represents not only economic value but also a global cultural diffusion phenomenon that originated in Jamaica.
• Hispaniola: Haiti and the Dominican Republic
  • Shared island: Haiti occupies the western third; the Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds.
  • Haiti: a foundational independence story—Haiti was the first country in the Western Hemisphere to gain independence, achieved through a slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture. The revolution culminated in independence in the early 1800s, but the country subsequently faced severe economic exploitation and debt imposed by France after recognition of independence.
  • Post-independence challenges: Haiti’s governance deteriorated over time, and as of the latest discussion in the lecture, Haiti has faced chronic instability and a failed state status since around 2024, with a collapse of a functioning government.
  • 2010 earthquake impact: a catastrophic earthquake in 2010 killed about 300{,}000 people and devastated infrastructure, exacerbating governance and development challenges.
  • Aid and governance: enormous aid flows post-disaster often failed to reach the intended beneficiaries due to governance and corruption concerns, undermining public trust and contributing to political instability.
  • Dominican Republic: cultural diffusion and baseball
  • The Dominican Republic has strong ties to baseball; it is one of the Caribbean nations where baseball is more popular than soccer.
  • Dominican players have become a dominant source of foreign-born talent in Major League Baseball (MLB); the country has produced a large number of MLB players and a number of Hall of Fame inductees.
  • The root of baseball’s prominence in Cuba and the Dominican Republic traces back to anti-imperial sentiment and cultural exchange during the colonial era: as Spanish colonial rule persisted, these nations adopted baseball as a form of cultural resistance and as a sport embraced from American influence.
• Soccer vs baseball in the Caribbean context:
  • In Latin America generally, soccer is the most popular sport; in contrast, on the Caribbean islands such as Cuba and the Dominican Republic, baseball holds particular cultural significance and widespread popularity.
  • Baseball’s prominence in the Dominican Republic is tied to economic mobility and opportunities in MLB, alongside deep cultural ties to the sport.

Reflective Connections and Thematic Takeaways

• Geopolitics and economic development:
  • The Panama Canal example illustrates how strategic infrastructure can shape sovereignty, foreign policy, and regional perceptions of political legitimacy.
  • Costa Rica’s abolition of the military demonstrates how political choices influence long-term stability, security, and economic growth, reinforcing the link between governance structures and development outcomes.
• Natural hazards and societal resilience:
  • Nicaragua’s tectonic setting shows how natural hazards (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions) coexist with resource benefits (fertile soils, water resources) that support agriculture and settlement.
• Cultural diffusion and world systems:
  • Reggae’s global diffusion from Jamaica exemplifies how cultural products spread through networks of trade, diaspora, and media, shaping global cultural landscapes.
  • Baseball as a colonial-era sport adopted in Cuba and the Dominican Republic illustrates how political history and resistance can influence cultural adoption and economic pathways (e.g., pathways to MLB careers).
• Ethics, governance, and development considerations:
  • Haiti’s post-disaster governance challenges highlight ethical concerns about aid effectiveness, governance, and accountability in disaster recovery.
  • Economic development linked to ecotourism (Costa Rica) emphasizes balancing growth with environmental stewardship and community benefits.
• Foundational principles reinforced:
  • Plate tectonics and hazard geography shape regional risk profiles and developmental choices.
  • Political geography and state formation influence regional affiliations and perceived legitimacy (e.g., Panama’s canal politics affecting its Central American status).
  • Cultural geography explains how culture, language, and sport spread via diffusion and diffusion-driven economic opportunities.
• Key dates and numbers to remember (for quick reference):
  • Canal crisis and military/economic history: 90\text{ miles} from the U.S. coast to Cuba; independence events and wars are framed around the dates below.
  • Central America military abolition: 1948; long-term stability narrative since then (roughly 77 years in the lecturer’s framing).
  • Panama independence and canal history: independence proclaimed in 1903; canal opened in 1914; canal turnover to Panama finalized in 1999; U.S. defense and rights arrangements preceded and accompanied these events.
  • Haitian disaster and governance: 2010 earthquake with approximately 300{,}000 fatalities; governance collapse around 2024.
  • Costa Rica: ongoing efforts toward carbon neutrality and renewable energy deployment; extensive protected areas (illustrated by a map with substantial green coverage).

Quick Recap (Key Takeaways)

• Nicaragua’s tectonics bring both hazards (earthquakes, volcanoes) and benefits (fertile soils, water resources) due to volcanic soils and interlinked lakes.
• Costa Rica’s landscape and ecotourism model drive economic strength and environmental protection, underpinned by a unique political choice: abolition of the military in 1948 and a stable domestic security approach.
• Panama’s canal history shows how external powers, independence movements, and strategic infrastructure intersect to shape regional identity and sovereignty, explaining why some consider Panama outside the core of Central America.
• In the Caribbean, Cuba’s Cold War history and current status reflect enduring geopolitical tensions; Jamaica’s cultural and economic profile centers on sugar, bauxite, and reggae; Haiti’s vulnerability to disasters, governance challenges, and a failed-state status contrast with the Dominican Republic’s baseball economy and diffusion of sport and culture.
• Across these regions, the lecture emphasizes the interplay of physical geography, political history, economic development, and cultural diffusion as shaping factors for contemporary Latin American and Caribbean landscapes.

Next Class Preview

• Thursday’s section will begin with the Middle America map, continuing the regional survey and connecting today’s themes to subsequent topics.