America Claims an Empire (1890-1920) Notes

1893: Business groups, aided by U.S. marines, overthrow Hawaii’s Queen Liliuokalani.
1898: The U.S.S. Maine explodes and sinks, initiating the Spanish-American War.
1901: Theodore Roosevelt assumes the presidency following McKinley's assassination.
1895: Guglielmo Marconi develops technology leading to the modern radio.
1898: Marie Curie discovers radium.
1900: The Boxer Rebellion occurs in China.
1903: Panama declares independence from Colombia.
1908: William Howard Taft is elected president.
1912: Woodrow Wilson is elected president.
1914: World War I begins in Europe; The Mexican Revolution begins; The Panama Canal opens.
1917: Mexico revises and adopts its constitution; Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens; The United States enters World War I.

In the late 1890s, sensationalized news stories of Spain's harsh rule of Cuba incite American anger.
Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders become a model for volunteer fighters.
Key questions:
- When should the U.S. intervene in another country’s affairs?
- How do dramatic headlines influence American opinion?

In 1893, Queen Liliuokalani realized her reign in Hawaii was ending, facing U.S. sailors and marines supporting white foreigners (haoles) planning to overthrow the monarchy.
Queen Liliuokalani's protest: She yielded authority to avoid conflict, awaiting the U.S. to undo the actions of its representatives and reinstate her.
U.S. ambassador John L. Stevens advocated annexing Hawaii, stating, “The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe, and this is the golden hour for the United States to pluck it.”

Americans had always sought to expand the size of their nation, extending control toward the Pacific Ocean throughout the 19th century.
By the 1880s, many American leaders wanted the United States to emulate European imperialist powers and establish overseas colonies.
Imperialism: Policy where stronger nations exert economic, political, or military control over weaker territories.
Beginning in 1867, the United States expanded due to global competition, acquiring Hawaii and Alaska, which later became states in 1959.

European nations had been establishing colonies for centuries.
In the late 19th century, Africa was a prime target of European expansionism; by the early 20th century, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent.
Imperialists also competed for territory in Asia, especially China.
Japan modernized and industrialized, joining European nations competing for China in the 1890s.
Most Americans warmed to overseas expansion, influenced by manifest destiny.

Desire for Military Strength:
- American leaders sought to establish a global military presence.
- Admiral Alfred T. Mahan advocated for building up American naval power to compete with other powerful nations.
- Between 1883 and 1890, the U.S. built nine steel-hulled cruisers and modern battleships, becoming the world’s third-largest naval power.
Thirst for New Markets:
- Advances in technology enabled American farms and factories to overproduce.
- The United States needed raw materials and new markets for goods.
- Imperialists saw foreign trade as a solution to overproduction, unemployment, and economic depression.
- The Navy’s Great White Fleet was a sign of America’s growing military power.
Belief in Cultural Superiority:
- Some Americans combined Social Darwinism with a belief in Anglo-Saxon racial superiority.
- They believed the United States was responsible for spreading Christianity and “civilization” to “inferior peoples”.
- This view narrowly defined civilization according to one culture's standards.

William Seward, Secretary of State, arranged the U.S. purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7.2$ million in 1867.
Alaska was initially derided as “Seward’s Icebox” or “Seward’s folly”.
In 1959, Alaska became a state, proving the purchase was valuable due to its resources: timber, minerals, and oil.

In 1867, the U.S. took over the Midway Islands.
Hawaii was economically significant to the U.S. for about a century; American merchants stopped there en route to China and East India since the 1790s.
In the 1820s, missionaries established Christian schools and churches; their descendants became sugar planters exporting to the United States.

American-owned sugar plantations accounted for approximately three-quarters of Hawaii's wealth in the mid-19th century.
Planters imported laborers from Japan, Portugal, and China; by 1900, foreigners outnumbered native Hawaiians about three to one.
White planters benefited from close ties with the U.S.; In 1875, the U.S. agreed to import Hawaiian sugar duty-free, leading to a ninefold increase in sugar production over 15 years.
The McKinley Tariff of 1890 eliminated the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar, causing Hawaiian sugar growers to face competition and prompting them to call for U.S. annexation to avoid the duty.
U.S. military and economic leaders valued the islands; in 1887, Hawaii was pressured to allow the U.S. to build a naval base at Pearl Harbor.
Pearl Harbor became a refueling station for American ships.

King Kalakaua was forced to grant voting rights only to wealthy landowners.
When Queen Liliuokalani succeeded him in 1891, she sought to remove property-owning qualifications for voting.
Business groups, supported by Ambassador John L. Stevens, organized a revolution.
With the help of U.S. marines, they overthrew the queen and established a government led by Sanford B. Dole.
President Cleveland wanted the Queen restored, but Dole refused to surrender power, so Cleveland recognized the Republic of Hawaii, but opposed annexation without majority Hawaiian support.
In 1897, President William McKinley, favored annexation, succeeded Cleveland as president.
On August 12, 1898, Congress proclaimed Hawaii an American territory; Hawaiians never had the chance to vote.
Hawaii became the 50th state in 1959.

James Creelman's reports on Spanish atrocities in Cuba aroused American sympathy for Cubans in 1896.
American newspapers exaggerated stories to increase sales and provoke intervention in Cuba.

By the late 19th century, Spain had lost most colonies, retaining only the Philippines, Guam, African outposts, and Cuba and Puerto Rico.
The United States had long been interested in Cuba, located only 90 miles south of Florida; in 1854, diplomats suggested buying Cuba, but Spain refused.
Cuban revolts against Spain prompted American sympathy; slavery was abolished in Cuba in 1886.
American capitalists invested millions in Cuban sugar cane plantations after the emancipation of slaves.

José Martí launched a revolution in 1895, organizing Cuban resistance and deliberately destroying property, including American-owned property, to provoke U.S. intervention for “Cuba Libre!” (a free Cuba).
U.S. public opinion was split between supporting Spain to protect investments and supporting the rebels.

In 1896, Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler to crush the rebellion, herding rural Cubans into concentration camps, where thousands died from hunger and disease.

William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal) and Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) engaged in a newspaper circulation war, publishing exaggerated accounts of Weyler's brutality.
Yellow journalism, sensational writing that exaggerates news to lure readers, fanned war fever.
Hearst allegedly told artist Frederic Remington,