Exhaustive Analysis of Henry VIII's Foreign Policy (1509–1529)

The Pursuit of Military Glory and Continental Reputation (1509–1513)

• Objectives of Early Foreign Policy:

  • Henry VIII sought to emulate the glorious kings of England's past, specifically Henry V and the legendary King Arthur.
  • Primary goals included winning significant land in France (matching the feat of Agincourt) and strengthening the international reputation of the English crown.

• The 1512 Expedition (Unsuccessful):

  • Henry sent an expeditionary force to Spain to cooperate with his father-in-law, Ferdinand of Aragon, against the French.
  • The outcome was considered embarrassing for the following reasons:
    • The English received little to no actual help from Spain.
    • The army ran out of supplies and became infected with dysentery.
    • The troops displayed a complete lack of discipline.
    • The force was forced to withdraw within months without achieving any objectives.

• The 1513 Expedition (Successful):

  • Henry raised a massive army of $30,000$ English troops.
  • The Battle of the Spurs: This was claimed as a great victory despite the French simply retreating in fear. It was a significant symbolic success.
  • Territorial Gains: Henry captured the towns of Therouanne and Tournai (Tarnan).
  • Historical Significance: This marked the first time an English king had won significant land in France since the reign of Henry V.

• Conflict with Scotland:

  • While Henry was in France, Catherine of Aragon served as Regent and oversaw the defense of the realm against the Scots.
  • Battle of Flodden (1513): Led by the Earl of Surrey, the English decimated the Scottish forces.
  • Casualties: Much of the Scottish nobility was killed, along with approximately $10,000$ Scottish subjects.
  • Strategic Outcome: The Scottish threat was effectively quelled for a significant period, securing England's northern border.

Diplomatic Maneuvering and the Role of Cardinal Wolsey

• The Treaty of London (1518):

  • Wolsey turned a papal call for a crusade against the Turks into a multilateral treaty of "Universal Peace."
  • It made Henry VIII the arbiter and central figure to peace in Christendom.
  • While it increased English prestige, the peace was fragile and essentially a "paper peace."
  • The agreement was not truly binding; for instance, the betrothal of Mary I to the French Dauphin was eventually broken.

• The Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520):

  • This was a grand meeting between Henry VIII and Francis I of France intended to display friendship.
  • Characterized by Decadence: The event was marked by extreme artificiality and opulent displays of wealth.
  • Limited Impact: Despite the heavy spending, it failed to secure a lasting alliance, as peace broke down by $1521$.

• Other Key Treaties (1511–1514):

  • 1511 Holy League: An alliance with Venice and the Pope against France; however, these leagues were often short-lived as allies broke their word quickly.
  • 1514 Peace Treaty with France: Resulted in England keeping Tournai and receiving an increased French pension.

Financial Consequences and Security Failures (1527–1529)

• Financial Impact of War and Diplomacy:

  • Henry VIII's foreign policy was vastly more expensive than that of his father, Henry VII.
  • The wars between $1512$ and $1514$ cost approximately $\pounds 900,000$, bankrolling England into near-bankruptcy.
  • The Field of the Cloth of Gold further drained the royal treasury with its decadence.

• The Shift in the Late 1520s:

  • 1527 Alliance: England aligned with France with plans to attack Charles V.
  • The Great Matter (The Divorce): This alliance was driven by Henry's need for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon.
  • The Problem of Charles V: Charles V was the nephew of Catherine of Aragon. At the time, Charles held the Pope prisoner. This made it impossible for the Pope to grant Henry’s divorce without offending his captor, Charles V.

• The Failure of 1529:

  • Treaty of Cambrai (1529): Peace was made between Francis I and Charles V.
  • Consequence: England was isolated, and Henry lost the option to attack Charles V alongside France.
  • Wolsey's Fall: Wolsey had won his position through diplomatic success, but his inability to secure the divorce lead to his downfall. The Blackfriars court was repeatedly delayed by Cardinal Campeggio, and Wolsey fell from power in $1529$.

Evaluating Responsibility: Henry VIII vs. Cardinal Wolsey

• The Nature of the Partnership:

  • The relationship was often described as an arrangement where Wolsey was the "Director" and Henry was the "Lion."
  • Wolsey took charge of the grueling details, such as the provisioning, shipping, and transporting of the $30,000$ troops to France in $1513$.

• Wolsey’s Influence:

  • Wolsey was able to persuade Henry to pursue policies that did not always align with traditional English interests (e.g., the humanist-inspired Treaty of London).
  • He rose to the position of Papal Legate in $1518$ and became Chancellor, largely due to his management of foreign affairs.

• Henry’s Role:

  • Ultimately, the decisions to go to war or seek peace were Henry's.
  • The grand ambition to invade foreign lands, particularly France, was Henry’s personal drive.
  • While some argue Wolsey manipulated Henry for his own interests, Henry was the one who sought the credit for victories.

• Final Assessment of the Period:

  • The circumstances by the late 1520s were exceptionally difficult.
  • Charles V was the strongest monarch in Europe, while England was bankrupt and had little appetite for further war.
  • The personal connection—Charles being Catherine's nephew—hamstrung English diplomacy and domestic stability.