Study Notes on American Imperialism Post-1898

The Spanish, Cuban, and Filipino War (often referred to around 1898) is a pivotal event in American history, considered by many historians to represent the birth of a U.S. imperial power.
- Souza's March, "Hands Across the Sea" embodies this sentiment by suggesting America began its journey as an imperialist nation in 1898.

Many historians examine American history through the lens of continuity and change over time.
The concept of U.S. imperialism from 1898 is debated:
- Some view it as a clear break from previous methods of expanding American influence.
- Others argue there are continuous threads that emerged even before 1898.
The distinction of American imperialism from that of European powers at that time and later is significant; European imperialism had focused on territorial expansion, while American actions developed a unique model.

Structure:
- 3 out of 4 ID essays from the study guide.
- 4 out of 5 short essays.
- 5 multiple choice questions.
Weighting:
- 30% IDs, 10% each.
- 60% for essays, 15% each.
- 10% for multiple choices, 2% each.
Important to arrive prepared with writing materials on exam day, as exams will be provided quickly in prepped blue books.

On the eve of World War I, the U.S. had a territorial empire that did not match its economic or military power relative to European counterparts.
Important questions to consider:
- How did America exercise power?
- How should we measure American power beyond territorial territory?
Discussion of empires often emphasizes military might and territorial conquest as indicators; however, America's empire remains less defined by these metrics.

At its highest point, America was not among the largest empires in history by territory.
The nature of American imperialism by the early 20th century involved projecting power without formal territorial control. This involved:
- Economic control of markets and resources rather than direct governance over expansive territories.
- Thus, post-1898 American imperialism looked toward economic dominance rather than just territorial expansion.
America's engagement with foreign territories often involved forming policies designed to ensure economic access while avoiding responsibility for governance.

Guano Islands Act (1856):
- Allowed the U.S. to claim unoccupied islands for guano deposits, used as fertilizer.
Alaska Purchase (1867):
- Purchase of Alaska for $7,200,000, later recognized for its resource richness.

The 1890 Census declared the frontier closed, leading to strategic shifts in American expansion post-1898 toward overseas territories.
This closing frontier marked the beginning of looking outward for new markets and territories. Turner’s thesis advocated expanding American influence abroad as a solution.

The sentiments around expanding American influence were echoed in both cultural exports and economic needs, emphasizing the "March of the Flag" notion.
As American territories were seen as a means to access resources and markets, voices like U.S. Senator Albert Beveridge emphasized the necessity for expansion for sustainability of American economy.

The causes behind the war were complex:
- Proximity to Cuba, interest in markets, and the explosion of USS Maine were catalysts.
The war lasted 113 days, resulting in the U.S. taking Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines for $20 million from Spain through the Treaty of Paris.

Cuba: Initially promised independence, the U.S. established military control under the Platt Amendment which allowed intervention and established Guantanamo Bay as a naval base.
Philippines: Unlike Cuba, the Philippines faced direct U.S. control leading to insurrection and ultimately a bloody conflict, symbolizing a crucial exception to the informal empire concept.

Post-war debates centered on annexation versus freedom:
- Characters like Emilio Aguinaldo emerged as pivotal figures opposing U.S. control, representing the Filipino perspective on imperialism.
- Anti-imperialists formed alliances with annexationists; various groups articulated their stances based on ethical, economic, or strategic reasons.

The ethical arguments for imperialism emerged claiming a moral duty to govern foreign territories for their improvement, often rooted in a paternalistic view of superiority.
America’s imperial project in the Philippines became a platform for furthering domestic progressive values abroad, often rationalized through the idea of uplift.

Reflecting on the events of 1898, it becomes apparent that the era marked both a shift toward international engagement and a distinction from traditional European models of imperialism. The emphasis was less on territorial acquisition and more on economic expansion through influence and access to global markets, highlighting a unique path in American history.