AMSCO-5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions

Causes and Effects: What were the causes and effects of various revolutions between 1750-1900, including influences of the Enlightenment and emerging nationalism?

The age of new ideas fostered political and philosophical conflicts.
Conservatives: Figures like Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre opposed revolutionary ideals, viewing revolutions as disruptive and counterproductive.
Common People's Desire: Despite conservatism, common people's demands for constitutional governance and democratic practices led to numerous revolutions throughout the 19th century, embodying ideals of progress, reason, and natural law.

Influences: Rooted in Enlightenment philosophy with economic support from physiocrats opposing English mercantilism.
Political Independence: Increasing political independence experienced by colonial legislatures, diminishing English control.
Declaration of Independence:
- Adopted on July 4, 1776.
- Expressed colonists’ philosophy; drew on John Locke’s idea of "unalienable rights": life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Outcome: Colonists achieved victory by 1783 with crucial assistance from France.

Context: Maori, Polynesian inhabitants with rich culture occupied New Zealand since mid-1200s.
Cause of Conflict: British annexation and increasing pressure for land led to the New Zealand Wars.
Outcome: By 1872, British forces gained victory over the united Maori tribes.

Revolutionary Slogan: "Liberté, égalité, et fraternité" (liberty, equality, fraternity).
Economic Causes: Persistent overspending by France to fund wars leading to a financial crisis.
Estates-General: Called in 1789, represented three societal estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners (97% of the population).
National Assembly Formed: Commoners broke away and succeeded in establishing a new government.
Key Events:
- Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, symbolizing oppression.
- Abolition of feudalism and establishment of the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
- Louis XVI’s execution during the Reign of Terror, instigated by radical factions like the Jacobins.
- Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte as emperor in 1804 post-revolutionary turmoil.

Background: Occurred in the French colony of St. Domingue, notable for its slave population.
Leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture: Enlightenment-educated, he led slave revolts in 1791, promoting abolition and independence.
Constitution of 1801: L'Ouverture established governance that granted equality and rights to all residents.
Eventual Independence: Under Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Haiti declared independence in 1804, becoming the first black-led republic in the Americas.
Comparison with French Revolution: Both revolutions stemmed from Enlightenment ideals; Haitian revolutionaries faced far more severe oppression as slaves.

Creole Background: Creoles, descendants of Europeans, sought independence influenced by revolutionary ideals.
Social Hierarchy: Creoles saw themselves superior to mestizos, while peninsulares held dominant power positions.
Reasons for Discontent:
- Wealthy creole estate owners opposed Spanish mercantilism.
- Political powerlessness against peninsulares.
- Mestizos sought equity and representation.
Simón Bolívar: Instrumental in liberating territories like Venezuela and Colombia, advocating for Enlightenment values and creating Gran Colombia.

Legacy of Revolutions: Post-war instability led to caudillos (local strongmen) intervening in politics, often undermining representative government.
Social Changes: New constitutions recognized legal equality but were often conservative in practice; women remained disenfranchised.
Influential Figure: Manuela Sáenz, Bolívar's companion, fought bravely alongside him, earning acclaim.

Continued Uprisings: Puerto Rico and Cuba faced revolts against Spanish rule in the late 19th century.
Lola Rodríguez de Tió: A poet and political thinker, she championed Puerto Rican resistance and faced exile for her activism.

Education and Nationalism: Filipino students studying in Europe founded this movement, primarily advocating for autonomy rather than outright independence.
José Rizal: His work invigorated Filipino nationalism, ultimately provoking the Philippine Revolution in 1896.

General Rise of Nationalism: Nationalism became a powerful force in Europe, fostering a collective identity among people.

Count di Cavour's Leadership: Cavour led the push for a unified Italy, balancing realpolitik with revolutionary ideals.
Role of Giuseppe Mazzini: Influential romantic nationalist advocating for Italian resurgence (Risorgimento) and joined forces with Garibaldi's militia.

Otto von Bismarck's Strategy: Utilized realpolitik to engineer wars that paved the way for German unification.
Wars:
- Danish War (1864), Seven Weeks' War (1866), and Franco-Prussian War (1870) all contributed to territorial gains and culminated in the formation of the German Empire in 1871.

Post-1871, Italy and Germany emerged as powers, influencing the balance of international alliances and foreshadowing World War I.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Rising nationalism in the Balkans, influenced by Western, Enlightenment ideals, inspired independence movements.
Greek Independence: Achieved with external aid from Britain, France, and Russia in 1827 after a civil war against Ottoman rule.

Ottomanism Movement: 1870s-1880s movement aiming for a modern unified state was met with suspicion from diverse ethnic groups, exacerbating nationalist sentiments.

Some signs indicate a possible decline in nationalism, with greater political coordination among nations (e.g., EU) suggesting alternative political organization possibilities.