Feminist theories of religion
Feminists see society as patriarchal - based on male domination.
Religious institutions are patriarchal. They reflect and perpetuate gender inequality.
Religious beliefs are patriarchal ideologies that legitimate women's subordination.
Examples of patriarchy in religion
There are many examples of patriarchy in religion.
Religious organisations are mainly male-dominated; e.g. Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests. Armstrong (1993) sees women's exclusion from the priesthoods of most religions as evidence of their marginalisation.
Places of worship often segregate the sexes and marginalise women in acts of worship, e.g. not being allowed to preach or to read from sacred texts. Taboos that see menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth as polluting may also prevent participation.
Sacred texts largely feature the doings of male gods and prophets and often reflect anti-female stereotypes, e.g. Eve who, in the Judaeo-Christian story of Genesis, caused humanity's fall from grace and expulsion from the Garden of Eden.
Religious laws and customs often give women fewer rights than men, e.g. in access to divorce, dress codes etc. They may also lead to unequal treatment, e.g. genital mutilation, punishment for sexual transgressions. Many religions legitimate and regulate women's traditional domestic and reproductive role, e.g. the Catholic Church bans abortion and artificial contraception.
Religious feminism
Woodhead (2002) argues that although much traditional religion is patriarchal, this is not true of all religion. There are 'religious forms of feminism' - ways women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.
While Western feminists often see the hijab (veil) worn by Muslim women as a symbol of oppression, to the wearer it may symbolise resistance to oppression: a symbol of liberation that enables her to enter the public sphere without losing her culture and history.
Rinaldo (2010) argues that even in conservative religions, women may use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within the home and family; e.g. a strongly held belief among Pentecostal and evangelical Christians is that men must respect women.
The position of women in liberal Protestant organisations is often more equal, e.g. since 1992, the Church of England has admitted women to the priesthood; about a third of its priests are now female. Other Protestant denominations, Reform Judaism and Sikhism all allow women priests.