Comprehensive EDIEMS Study Notes for Upper Secondary Education Entry

Overview and Structure of the EDIEMS Study Guide

The Educational Diagnostic Evaluation for Entry into Higher Secondary Education (EDIEMS) study guide, produced by the Coordinación Sectorial Académica (COSAC) under the Subsecretaría de Educación Media Superior (SEMS), is designed as a comprehensive academic resource for students transitioning from secondary to high school. The guide is structured into specific formative fields: Natural and Experimental Sciences, Critical Thinking and Inclusive Collectivity, Mathematics, Social Sciences, and Language. Each field is composed of sessions that include essential content reviews, exercises for reinforcement, and reinforcement icons. The guide explicitly highlights two types of icons: one for evaluation questionnaires used to verify learning at the end of each session, and another for recommended complementary resources to deepen knowledge. To ensure effective study, the document advises an exploratory reading, planning specific schedules, taking an hourly break, and ensuring that all materials and support resources are on hand.

Fundamental Concepts of Matter and its Internal Structure

In the field of Natural and Experimental Sciences, matter is defined as everything that possesses mass and volume, occupying a specific place in space. Practically everything surrounding a human, including the oxygen in the air and the body itself, is constituted of matter. The study uses the Corpuscular Model of Matter, also known as the particle model, to explain that matter is made of extremely small particles, such as atoms, molecules, or ions, which are in constant motion. This microscopic view is essential for distinguishing between elements, which are pure substances made of only one class of atom represented by chemical symbols, and compounds, which are formed by more than one class of atom represented by chemical formulas. Examples of chemical elements in different states include solid Copper ($Cu$) and Gold ($Au$), liquid Mercury ($Hg$) and Bromine ($Br$), and gaseous Oxygen ($O$) and Nitrogen ($N$). Chemical symbols usually consist of one or two letters, with the first always capitalized, often derived from Greek, Latin, or Arabic roots, such as Argentum for Silver ($Ag$), Kalium for Potassium ($K$), and Aurum for Gold ($Au$).

Chemical compounds summarize the composition of substances showing the quantity of particles. For instance, Water ($H_{2}O$) contains 2 atoms of Hydrogen and 1 of Oxygen, while Sodium Chloride ($NaCl$) includes 1 atom of Sodium and 1 of Chlorine. Advanced examples include Sulfuric Acid ($H_{2}SO_{4}$), which has 2 Hydrogen atoms, 1 Sulfur atom, and 4 Oxygen atoms, and Calcium Hydroxide ($Ca(OH)_{2}$), featuring 1 Calcium atom, 2 Oxygen atoms, and 2 Hydrogen atoms. Mixtures differ from compounds because the substances are not chemically combined and can be present in variable quantities. Mixtures are composed of a dispersing phase (the medium) and a dispersed phase (the substance in lesser proportion). Depending on the size of the dispersed phase particles, mixtures are classified as homogeneous, which are uniform, or heterogeneous, where phases are visibly unequal.

Properties and Classification of Matter

Matter exhibits characteristics classified into extensive and intensive properties. Extensive properties depend on the quantity of matter and include mass, weight, and volume. Mass represents the amount of matter in a given space and is an invariable property regardless of altitude or latitude; for example, $1\,kg$ of iron is consistent on Earth or Mars, measured with a balance in Kilograms ($kg$). Weight ($P$) is the measure of gravitational attraction acting on a body and is proportional to mass. Weight varies by location; a stone will weigh less on the Moon than on Earth due to weaker gravity. The formula for weight is $P = mg$, where $P$ is weight, $m$ is mass, and $g$ is the acceleration of gravity ($9.8\,m/s^{2}$). Volume refers to the space a body occupies in any physical state, with the standard unit being the cubic meter ($m^{3}$).

Intensive properties do not depend on the quantity of matter but on its nature, providing identifiers useful for differentiating substances. Density ($\rho$), as one intensive property, relates mass to volume via the formula $\rho = \frac{m}{V}$. In pure substances, density remains constant regardless of the portion taken, although factors like pressure and temperature can affect it. Temperature determines the direction of heat flow, which always moves spontaneously from a higher temperature body to a lower one. The melting point is the temperature at which a body transitions from solid to liquid, while the boiling point is the temperature at which it passes from liquid to gas.

History and Organization of the Periodic Table

The evolution of chemical element classification began in 1789 with Antoine Lavoisier, who defined the concept of the chemical element and published a list of 33 known elements divided into four categories: metals, non-metals, gases, and earths. In 1829, Johann Döbereiner proposed the Law of Triads, grouping three elements with similar properties where the central atomic weight was approximately the average of the other two. Dmitri Mendeléyev significantly contributed in 1869 by publishing a table of 63 elements organized by atomic mass, even predicting the properties of undiscovered elements. In 1915, Henry Moseley used X-ray spectroscopy to discover the concept of the atomic number ($Z$), consolidating the modern table. Finally, in 1964, John Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves, noting that properties repeated every eight elements.

The modern Periodic Table organizes elements by atomic number, electronic configuration, and chemical properties. It consists of 18 vertical columns called Groups and 7 horizontal rows called Periods. Elements in the same group share chemical properties due to having the same electronic configuration in their last energy level. Important families include Alkali Metals (Group 1), Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2), Halogens (Group 17), and Noble Gases (Group 18). Groups 3 to 12 are known as transition elements (Block B). Other families include Boron (13), Carbon (14), Nitrogen (15), and Chalcogens (16). The atomic number ($Z$) represents the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. Atomic mass ($A$) is the total mass of an atom (protons and neutrons) measured in atomic mass units ($uma$). One $uma$ equals $1.66 \times 10^{-24}\,g$. Valence is determined by the number of electrons in the outermost layer allowed for chemical bonding.

Atomic Models and Electronic Configuration

Niels Bohr's atomic model, proposed in 1913, explains why elements have specific emission and absorption spectra. His model suggests that electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits called energy levels. Each level has a specific distance from the nucleus and a maximum capacity of electrons determined by the formula $2n^{2}$, where $n$ is the level number. Level 1 (K) holds 2 electrons; Level 2 (L) holds 8; Level 3 (M) holds 18; and Level 4 (N) holds 32. Electrons can jump between levels: they absorb energy when jumping to a higher level and emit energy when jumping to a lower one. In the Bohr model, protons ($p^{+}$) and neutrons ($n^{0}$) are concentrated in the nucleus. The number of neutrons ($n^{0}$) is calculated using the formula $n^{0} = A - Z$, where $A$ is the rounded atomic mass. For example, a Vanadium atom with $Z = 23$ and $A = 51$ has 23 protons, 23 electrons, and 28 neutrons ($51 - 23$). The electronic configuration according to Bohr involves distributing electrons across these levels until the atomic number is satisfied.

Chemical Bonding and Lewis Diagrams

Chemical bonds form when atoms interact, primarily involving their outermost regions. Gilbert N. Lewis explained that atoms combine to achieve a stable electronic configuration similar to noble gases, known as the octet rule. Valence electrons are those located in the highest energy level of the atom and determine the power of combination, a concept mentioned by Edward Frankland in 1852. Lewis diagrams represent these bonds by using the chemical symbol for the nucleus and internal layers, with dots placed around the symbol representing valence electrons. For example, Lithium ($Li$) has 1 valence electron, Nitrogen ($N$) has 5, and Chlorine ($Cl$) has 7. Single, double, and triple bonds occur depending on how many pairs are shared: $NaCl$ features a single bond where Sodium cedes its electron to Chlorine; Oxygen ($O_{2}$) forms a double bond; and Nitrogen ($N_{2}$) forms a triple bond to complete their octets.

Electronegativity is the relative capacity of an atom to attract electrons in a bond, related to ionization energy and electron affinity. Linus Pauling developed a method to calculate these relative values. Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and from bottom to top within a group. Fluorine ($F$) has the highest value ($4.0$), while Cesium ($Cs$) and Francium ($Fr$) have the lowest ($0.7$). The difference in electronegativity determines the bond type: a difference of $0$ to $0.4$ indicates a non-polar covalent bond; a difference of $0.5$ to $1.6$ indicates a polar covalent bond; and a difference of $1.7$ to $3.3$ indicates an ionic bond. Ionic compounds (like $NaCl$) involve charged particles (cations and anions) and high melting points, while molecular compounds (like $H_{2}O$) share electrons and have lower melting points.

Dynamics: Newton's Laws and Motion

Isaac Newton's laws (1687) describe the relationship between forces and motion. The First Law (Inertia) states that an object remains at rest or in uniform linear motion unless acted upon by a net external force. Massive objects have greater inertia, resisting changes in motion. The Second Law (Fundamental Law of Dynamics) establishes that acceleration is directly proportional to net force and inversely proportional to mass, summarized in the formula $F = ma$. Force is measured in Newtons ($N$), mass in kilograms ($kg$), and acceleration in meters per second squared ($m/s^{2}$). The Third Law (Action-Reaction) dictates that for every action, there is a reaction of equal magnitude but opposite direction ($F_{A \rightarrow B} = -F_{B \rightarrow A}$). These forces occur simultaneously on different bodies and never cancel each other out.

Motion is analyzed through Uniform Linear Motion (MRU), where speed and direction are constant ($v$) and acceleration is zero, using the formula $d = vt$. Uniformly Accelerated Linear Motion (MRUA) occurs when acceleration ($a$) is constant and velocity changes linearly. Its formulas include $v_{f} = v_{i} + (at)$ and $d = (v_{i}t) + \frac{1}{2}at^{2}$. Uniform Circular Motion (MCU) describes a body rotating with constant speed but changing direction, resulting in centripetal acceleration ($a_{c}$). Key MCU concepts include the Period ($T$), the time for one revolution ($s$); Frequency ($f$), revolutions per second ($Hz$), defined as $f = \frac{1}{T}$; and Angular Velocity ($\omega$), measured in $rad/s$ ($\omega = \frac{2\pi}{T}$). Linear speed in MCU is $v = \omega r$, and centripetal acceleration is $a_{c} = \frac{v^{2}}{r}$.

Mechanical Energy and Thermal Phenomena

Energy is the capacity of matter to perform work. Mechanical energy ($E_{m}$) is the sum of kinetic and potential energy: $E_{m} = E_{k} + E_{p}$. Kinetic energy ($E_{k}$) is associated with motion, calculated as $E_{k} = \frac{1}{2}mv^{2}$. Potential energy ($E_{p}$) depends on position within a force field, notably gravitational potential energy: $E_{p} = mgh$, where $g = 9.8\,m/s^{2}$ and $h$ is height. The Principle of Conservation of Energy states that in an isolated system, energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transformed. For a skater on a track, potential energy at the top transforms into kinetic energy at the bottom.

Heat and temperature are distinct thermal concepts. Temperature is an intensive property reflecting the average kinetic energy of particles, measured by scales like Celsius ($^{\circ}C$), Fahrenheit ($^{\circ}F$), and Kelvin ($K$). Conversions include $K = {^{\circ}}C + 273.15$, ${^{\circ}}F = 1.8 \times {^{\circ}}C + 32$, and ${^{\circ}}C = \frac{{^{\circ}}F - 32}{1.8}$. Absolute zero is $0\,K$ ($-273.15\,^{\circ}C$). Heat is energy in transit from a higher temperature body to a lower one, measured in Joules ($J$), calories ($cal$), or British Thermal Units ($Btu$), where $1\,cal = 4.184\,J$. Heat propagates via Conduction (contact in solids), Convection (movement of fluids/gases due to density changes), and Radiation (electromagnetic waves, even in a vacuum, moving at $300,000\,km/s$).

Ethical Reflection: Principles and Dilemmas

Ethics is a branch of philosophy guiding human conduct toward the good and social justice. Fundamental ethical principles include Human Dignity, based on the inherent value of every person; the Common Good, where the welfare of the community prevails over individual interests (e.g., the creation of the SEP in 1921); Justice, based on equity and the rejection of arbitrary privileges; Liberty, the capacity to act responsibly according to one's own will; and Integrity, the coherence between thought, speech, and action. An ethical dilemma is a conflict where choosing one option involves transgressing another moral value. Solving a dilemma requires identifying values in conflict, selecting a primary value, and taking a coherent decision. Principles like Responsibility extend to several areas: Social, Labor, Environmental, Civil, Penal, and Affective. Hans Jonas (1979) emphasized a principle of responsibility for a technological civilization, urging actions compatible with the long-term survival of human life on Earth.

Identity and Social Coexistence

Identity construction is a lifelong process starting in childhood, influenced by personal history, interactions, skills, interests, and biological factors. Personal identity involves self-concept, self-esteem, and self-perception, particularly vital during the life crisis of adolescence. Factors like genetics (temperament), family (first agent of socialization), social circles (friends and media), and culture (language and traditions) shape personality. Social values such as Honesty, Integrity, Solidarity, Empathy, and Tolerance guide interactions and ensure social order. A positive community or collectivity is defined by respect, cooperation, and conflict resolution through dialogue. It requires diversity of thought, inclusion (removing barriers), equity (adapting support to specific needs), and equality (treating all with the same value and rights). Coexistence rules are essential for protection, conflict prevention, and the promotion of healthy relationships.

Mathematical Operations and Arithmetic Properties

Mathematical study begins with Integers ($Z$), which include natural numbers, their negatives, and zero. For addition, if signs are equal, values are added and the sign is kept; if signs differ, the smaller value is subtracted from the larger, keeping the sign of the larger absolute value. For multiplication and division, the law of signs dictates that same signs result in positive ($+$, $+$, or $-$, $-$) and different signs result in negative. Fractions relate a numerator (parts taken) to a denominator (total parts divided). To add or subtract fractions with different denominators, the least common multiple ($m.c.m.$ or LCM) is used to find a common denominator. Multiplication of fractions involves multiplying numerators and denominators straight across, while division involves multiplying by the reciprocal of the second fraction.

Significant tools include the Least Common Multiple (m.c.m), the smallest common multiple of two or more numbers, and the Greatest Common Divisor (M.C.D), the largest number that divides them exactly. Key properties of operations include: Commutative (order does not alter the result: $A + B = B + A$), Associative (grouping does not alter the result: $(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)$), and Distributive ($A \times (B + C) = (A \times B) + (A \times C)$). The International System of Units (SI) standardizes measurements: Mass in Kilograms ($kg$), Length in Meters ($m$), and Time in Seconds ($s$). Proportionality can be direct, where both variables increase or decrease together, or inverse, where one increases while the other decreases.

Social Sciences and the Productive System

Production processes involve activities using natural resources, labor, and capital to generate goods and services. Economic activities are categorized into four sectors:

1. Primary Sector: Extraction or collection of raw materials (agriculture, livestock, fishing).
2. Secondary Sector: Transformation of raw materials into elaborated products (food industry, construction, clothing, pharmaceuticals).
3. Tertiary Sector (Services): Activities that satisfy needs without material production (repair, transport, finance, tourism).
4. Quaternary Sector (Innovation): Processes aimed at increasing knowledge and technical improvement (scientific research, consultancy, cultural media).

These processes impact the environment through the ecological footprint, resulting in resource depletion, pollution, and waste generation. Norms like the Mexican Official Norms (NOM) are mandatory regulations to protect health and the environment.

Governance, Citizenship, and Culture

Societies regulate behavior through norms and laws. In Mexico, the legal hierarchy starts with the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (1917), followed by Federal Laws, General Laws, National Laws, Regulations, and NOMs. Institutions like the UN (ONU), UNICEF, CNDH, and SEP work to build a culture of peace and protect individual rights. Citizenship participation involves social, community, political, and civic intervention, allowing citizens to influence decisions, ensure transparency, and prevent social conflicts through mechanisms like voting, referendums, and popular inquiries. Mexico's identity is also deeply rooted in the contributions of 68 different indigenous peoples, encompassing languages, medicinal knowledge, agricultural techniques like the milpa, and distinct culinary and artistic expressions that form part of the nation's intangible cultural heritage.

Language, Literature, and Writing Strategies

Texts are classified by intent: Literary texts include Narratives (relate events through a narrator, characters, and setting), Descriptive (detail characteristics of objects/people), Dramatic (intended for theater representation using dialogue), and Argumentative (aim to convince through reasons). Popular narratives include comics (visual sequences with panels and speech bubbles), short stories (brief prose), legends (mixing reality and fantasy), and myths (sacred stories about origins). Effective writing requires the use of connectors: Temporal (indicating chronology), Causal (introducing reasons like ‘because’ or ‘due to’), and Additive. Clarity and coherence are essential; clarity relies on precise vocabulary and simple syntax, while coherence ensures logical internal connections and thematic unity.

For study and information management, various graphic organizers are used: Synoptic charts (using braces for hierarchy), Comparative tables (for analyzing differences), Schematic sun maps (associating ideas around a central circle), Spider maps (grouping contents in sections), and Cloud maps. Visual messages are supported by illustrations, infographics (combining text and images for complex data), posters (direct messages: informative, advertising, normative, artistic, or protest), and brochures (tri-fold informative papers). Character analysis in narrative identifies protagonists, antagonists, and secondary characters. Descriptions may focus on physical traits (prosopography), moral qualities (etopeya), or a combined portrait (portrait or semblanza).