Notes on Byzantine Jewry, Islam, iconoclasm, and medieval Mediterranean chronicles

Context: the Byzantine Empire, Islam, and Jewish life

The class situates Jewish life after the rise of Islam, within the late Byzantine world and its interactions with newly dominant Muslim powers. The Empire is described as at its height prior to the Islamic conquests, with the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Spain under threat from or absorbed by the Umayyad caliphate. The Byzantines still hold Greece, parts of Italy, and the eastern Mediterranean basin before substantial Islamic expansion shifts the balance of power.
Islam emerges after Muhammad’s death; the caliphs (leaders of the Muslim community) expand rapidly. The term caliph describes the leader of the Muslims, used in modern memory by groups such as ISIS to claim a world-spanning caliphate. Emirs and sultans exist alongside caliphs as leaders within Islamic governance.
The lecture emphasizes the geopolitical theater: Umayyad expansion across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Spain; Byzantine lands shrink accordingly; Persian influence wanes in the former Persian empire areas as Arabic becomes dominant, with Persian gradually receding from daily life and administration.
Jews live across these regions: Palestine/Israel, Babel (Babylonia), North Africa, and Spain, under both Byzantine and Islamic rule. They are spread widely, and their experience changes with who governs them.

Key concepts and historical threads

Byzantine Jews and loyalty concerns: Byzantines distrust Jews due to suspected loyalty to Persian/Muslim powers, especially during wars where Jews sided with enemies (e.g., the Persians). This distrust complicates intra-empire unity against common enemies and has long-term consequences for Jewish life under Byzantine rule.
Two major Jewish population centers historically: the Jewish communities in Palestine/Israel and in Babel (Mesopotamia), with additional strong communities in North Africa and Spain. Over time, two major modern groupings are used for Jewish communities: Sephardi (origins in Iberia, but now broader) and Ashkenazi (origin in Northern Europe and Germany).
Byzantine policy toward Judaism evolves over time, with periods of oppression and later pockets of tolerance depending on the emperor and the political moment.

Apocalypse of Zerubbabel and medieval reception

The Apocalypse of Zerubbabel is discussed as a text not widely studied or known today, but one that left an impression on medieval Jewish and later rabbinic authors.
A famous medieval rabbi later learned of this text or its themes, integrating its ideas into his own writings—even if he lacked full context about the Persian/Greek/Islamic historical background.
The text’s reception illustrates how minority communities recycle and reinterpret ancient apocalyptic material to address present political conditions (e.g., the future political order under a conqueror or empire).

The Umayyad era, governance, and language policy

The Umayyad Caliphate becomes a dominant political force after the early caliphs; they conquer large swaths of territory once under Persian rule and impose Arab-centric governance.
Language and cultural policy: Persian language and script are discouraged in some regions, replaced by Arabic; this is part of a broader Arabization process in which local populations (including Jews) increasingly use Arabic in administration and daily life.
Jewish communities remained widespread, with significant populations in the former Persian heartlands, the Levant, North Africa, and Iberia under Muslim rule. Jewish communities thus experience both relative protection and various forms of pressure depending on local rulers.
The Byzantines and Muslims share concerns about Jewish loyalty, especially in times of war, leading to cycles of suspicion, restriction, and occasional tolerance.

Iconoclasm, religious policy, and its consequences

Leo III (the Isaurian, the “Iconoclast”) initiates a major iconoclastic movement, forbidding veneration of icons and statues and restricting religious imagery in worship.
The Umayyad caliphate and Islamic critique of Christian practices intersect with Byzantine debates about sacred images; the caliph questions the Christian practice of icon veneration, arguing that God is not material and that worship should be directed to God alone, not physical images.
Leo III’s policy bans most church statues and icons; the only permitted religious symbol is the cross. This marks a sharp break in Byzantine religious practice and creates tensions within the Church and between communities (especially those whose devotional life centers on icons and images).
The internal Byzantine conflict mirrors external pressures: iconoclasm becomes a flashpoint for culture, politics, and religious authority, with broader consequences for Christians (Catholic/Orthodox) and Jews who navigate these shifts.
The iconoclasm period overlaps with later movements, including Reformation-era iconoclastic waves in Western Christendom, illustrating recurrent tensions around sacred imagery.

Basil I the Macedonian and the persecution of Jews

Basil I (the Macedonian) is portrayed as a harsh ruler who intensifies persecution of Jews, including forcing Jews to convert to Christianity.
The persecution is described as systematic: by August, Basil supposedly compels all Jews to be baptized; non-conformity leads to severe punishment, including being pressed in a wooden olive press to extract confession under coercion.
Yudah ben David Hayush (a Jewish historian) documents Basil’s oppression, describing widespread coercion to surrender to Christianity and the destruction or coercion of communities.
Israel Nosha, a Jewish poem written in this era, frames Basil’s oppression in liturgical-poetic terms. It is a lamentation expressing fear and appeal for divine mercy, and it frames the Jewish oppression as part of a broader pattern in exile and persecution.
The poem Israel Nosha is connected to the Yom Kippur liturgy and Selichot customs; it calls on God to deliver the Jewish people and to withhold power from oppressors like Seir (a coded reference to Christianity) and Paran (coded reference to Islam).
Seir and Sayir as coded enemies: Seir is treated as Christianity (often linked to Edom and Rome); Sayir is linked to Islam. The poem thus uses coded biblical geography to articulate the two great religious-political powers oppressing Jews.
The poem’s liturgical use: still recited in certain communities during Selichot, with a Byzantine musical setting; the exact melody is uncertain due to its medieval antiquity.
The Byzantine musical and liturgical context influences later Jewish and Christian musical tradition, though the exact continuity of the chant is uncertain.

Leo VI the Wise and religious toleration

After Basil’s death, Leo VI (the Wise) ascends and restores some religious freedoms that Basil had curtailed, including a degree of tolerance toward Jews.
Leo VI is celebrated for his scholarly temperament, openness to study, and willingness to allow Jews to practice their religion under his rule.
The era marks a shift from persecution toward a more regulated pluralism, at least in certain regions or times, with Leo VI often cited as a more tolerant ruler.

John Cimizkis and other episodes of oppression and resistance

John Cimizkis is described as a ruler who fought against both pagan Rajatu (likely a textual reference to opponents) and the Abbasid caliphate, reconquering territories in Northern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine; he attempts to force Jews to convert, but opposition to forced conversion ends after his death.
This period features a broader pattern: oppressive rulers coercing conversions, followed by periods of limited relief after their deaths, illustrating the volatility of Jewish life under shifting imperial powers.
The text highlights a minister named Paltiel, who is appointed as Physiar (vizier/minister) under Islamic-adjacent governance, showing how Jewish figures could attain high office in some contexts, despite broader oppression.
Ahimaaz (an author/vendor of midrashic or pseudo-historical tales) describes a world of fantasy: magic, angels, demons, and miracle workers. This flavor of storytelling demonstrates how Jewish chroniclers encoded their anxieties, hopes, and religious imagination into vivid narrative landscapes.

Miracle tales from the Italian Jewish chronicles (Ahimaaz and contemporaries)

The chroniclers recount several miracle stories from Southern Italy and the broader Mediterranean: rescue from danger, miraculous travel, and miraculous revivals.
Saudan’s siege near Bari and the purported miracle of letters written on a horse’s hooves (the ineffable name) to allow escape before Shabbat demonstrates the blend of piety and magical realism in these tales.
Rabbi Shatan’el (Hananel) and the revival tale of Papalion: a cousin is resurrected temporarily and later restored to natural life, only to be restored to dust after the length of the mortal life is complete. The tale ends with humility and repentance and underscores the dangers of unnatural miracles and human responsibility in testimonies of faith.
These tales reflect how Jewish communities in the Diaspora integrated miracle narratives into their memory culture, reinforcing communal identity under pressure and expressing moral and theological lessons.

The Oria episode and Mediterranean geopolitics

An episode near Oria (Italy, in Calabria) involves the Arab general Saudan attempting to seize the city; the Jewish appeals and rabbinic leadership prevent disaster just as Shabbat begins.
The miracle of distance and time – the miraculous travel of letters and reliance on divine help – is recounted as a sign of divine protection for Jewish communities under threat.
The chronicle emphasizes Jewish leadership in crisis and their reliance on a combination of cunning diplomacy, piety, and miracle narratives to safeguard communities.

The Hagia Sophia, Byzantium, and the end of an era

In 1204, Catholic crusaders conquer Constantinople and take control of the Hagia Sophia; this marks a turning point that weakens the Byzantine state and paves the way for later Turkish conquest (culminating in 1453).
The fall of Constantinople and the changing political order influence Jewish communities in the region, contributing to the dispersion and the emergence of particular Jewish diasporic identities.
Byzantine Jewish literature leaves a lasting influence on Ashkenazi Judaism; Jewish communities from Byzantine lands are called Romaniotes Jews. A standing Greek synagogue in the Lower East Side (Ben Benjanina) preserves Byzantine rites in a modern setting, illustrating continuity and adaptation.
The Romaniotes have a distinct liturgical and cultural tradition, separate from Ashkenazi and Sephardi streams. There is also a smaller Italian Jewish tradition that reflects strong Byzantine influence, with cross-currents among Ashkenazi and Sephardi communities.
The lecture emphasizes the long historical arc from Byzantine hegemony to its decline, and the lasting influence of Byzantine Jewish culture on later European Jewish life.

Terminology, midrash, and Jewish mysticism discussed in the course

Midrash: A key method of interpreting biblical narratives through narratives and parables; many of the miracle tales and legends in these chronicles are midrashic in nature rather than strict historical reportage.
The difference between literalist readings (some Byzantines) and midrashic/mystical readings (other groups) leads to divergent understandings of heaven, angels, and prophetic visions. The Byzantines often treated midrashic stories as truth, while others insisted on metaphor or allegorical interpretation.
Mysticism and meditative ascent: The Amittai/Shefatiyah poem and other texts discuss mystical journeys to the heavenly palaces, gates, and realms. These journeys feature gatekeeping angels who test worthiness; the journeys culminate in encounters with heavenly beings and propositions about God’s nature.
The concept of “holy, holy, holy” (the trishot of sanctification) as a standard liturgical refrain in heavenly visions; the line is connected to biblical sources (e.g., Ezekiel) and is used to frame the cosmic order in prayer and meditation.
The imagery of “the Lord of hosts” (the host = army) appears repeatedly: the heavenly hosts, angels, guardians, and divine chariots are described as if a celestial army accompanies and examines human beings.
The narrative uses highly visual, almost cinematic descriptions of heaven (thrones, chariots, divine palaces) that reflect midrashic and possibly Kabbalistic-inspired imagery, though not explicitly tied to formal Kabbalah in all cases.
The text notes a spectrum of Jewish groups: Palestinian/Babylonian tradition; Sephardi; Ashkenazi; Romaniotes (Byzantine Jews); Italian Jews. Each tradition has its own liturgical practices, textual emphases, and historical memory, yet all contribute to the broader tapestry of Jewish history in the Mediterranean basin.
The historical memory of persecution and resilience is braided with a moral and spiritual vocabulary (redemption, exile, deliverance, divine mercy) that recurs across poems, midrash, and chronicle literature.

Key takeaways and connections

The dynamic between empire and minority communities is central: Jewish life shifts with the fortunes of Byzantium and Islamic powers, including periods of coercion (forced baptism, persecution) and times of greater freedom (under Leo VI, and in certain locales).
The transition from Persian to Arab rule and language shift illustrates how empires shape cultural and linguistic landscapes, with long-term consequences for Jewish and other minority communities.
Iconoclasm shows how religious policy can radically alter devotional life and provoke conflict between scholarly elites and popular piety, with broader implications for communal cohesion.
The medieval Italian chronicles (Ahimaaz and colleagues) reflect a hybrid world where Jewish, Christian, and Muslim neighbors intersect, and where miracle narratives serve social, moral, and religious purposes.
The Romaniotes are a distinct thread within Judaism, highlighting the regional diversity of Jewish life in the Mediterranean and their influence on later Ashkenazi and Sephardi practices.
The lecture closes by foreshadowing the next topic (a chapter on the Roman Catholic Church) and reminding students of the complex, multi-layered history of Jews in the medieval and early modern Mediterranean world.

Terms and concepts to remember for exams

Iconoclasm: policy of banning religious images and icons; Leo III’s stance; consequences for Byzantine church and religious life.
Israel Nosha: a Jewish liturgical-poetic work written during Basil’s oppression; themes of divine mercy, deliverance, and yearning for Zion; linked to Selichot/Yom Kippur liturgy.
Seir and Sayir: coded geographic-religious references used in liturgy to refer to Christianity (Seir) and Islam (Sayir) in medieval Jewish texts.
Midrash: interpretive literature expanding biblical narratives; distinguishes literal readings from allegorical or mystical interpretations.
Romaniotes: Byzantine Jews, with distinct liturgical and cultural traditions; continuity into modern times via Greek rites and specific synagogues (e.g., Lower East Side Greek synagogue).
Disputations: formal debates between Christians and Jews; often coercive; risk of forced conversion if Jews lose; used as a political and religious tool in some periods.
Shabbat miracles and Mediterranean miracle tales: stories of travel, rescue, and miraculous events in the context of Jewish resilience under pressure.
Italian Jewish chronicles (e.g., Ahimaaz): primary sources for medieval Jewish life in southern Italy, with a blend of real events and legendary embellishment.
Byzantine-to-Islamic transition: the fluid boundary between religious policy, empire-building, language policy, and minority rights in the medieval Mediterranean world.

Quick glossary of names and terms mentioned

Basil I (the Macedonian): Byzantine emperor who persecuted Jews and forced baptism; associated with the Israel Nosha poem.
Leo III (the Isaurian, “the Wise”): emperor who ended iconoclasm; restored religious tolerance for Jews; his era followed Basil’s oppressive policies.
John Cimizkis: emperor noted for military campaigns and forced conversion policies toward Jews; oppression ends with his death.
Paltiel: minister (Physiar/vizier) in the Byzantine/Islamic-adjacent governance context; reflects Jewish involvement in governance.
Saudan: Arab commander who besieged Italian cities such as Oria; episodes include clever diplomacy and miraculous interventions.
Hananel/Hanan el: rabbi associated with miracle stories involving reviving a cousin and the ethics of miracle use.
Yudah ben David Hayush: Jewish historian who documents Basil’s persecutions.
Israel Nosha (Yisrael Noshan): liturgical poem about oppression and deliverance; recited in Selichot and Yom Kippur contexts.
Romaniotes: Byzantine Jews; distinct liturgical tradition; influence on Ashkenazi Judaism; still present in a few communities today.
Sayir/Seir: coded terms for Islam and Christianity in medieval Jewish texts, used to articulate oppression without explicit reference.

References to numbers and explicit figures (LaTeX formatting)

Four caliphs in early Islamic succession: 4 caliphs
Oppressed Jewish communities under Basil: “more than a thousand communities” forced to surrender to Christianity: 1000 communities
A figure of strength attributed to a monstrous angel: “800 parasites taller than a comrade” (mythic/metaphorical unit; used in the text as a hyperbolic descriptor): 800 parasites
Leo VI’s restoration of religious tolerance after Basil’s death: contextually numeric in the timeline but not a specific count
The later text mentions battles, conquests, and territories in the regions of Northern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine; no precise modern-day numerical statistics are given beyond the geographic scope
The discussion of disputes and debates notes the formal process (two debaters, a jury, formal rules) without fixed numerical counts, but the metaphor of a boxing ring is used to illustrate argumentative structure

Suggested study prompts

Compare and contrast Basil I’s iconoclasm with Leo VI’s religious policy toward Jews. How did these policies affect Jewish life and Byzantine religious life?
Explain the concept of Sayir and Seir. How do these coded terms help us understand medieval Jewish writing about Christianity and Islam?
Describe the role of midrash and miracle stories in Jewish chronicles from the Italian peninsula. What purpose do these tales serve for communities under threat?
Outline the key differences between Romaniotes, Sephardi, and Ashkenazi Jewish traditions discussed in the lecture. How did historical circumstances shape each tradition’s rites and memory?
Summarize the significance of the poem Israel Nosha in its historical context and in liturgical memory today.
Discuss the impact of the Fourth Crusade on Byzantine Jewry and on the broader Mediterranean Jewish world.
Reflect on the ethical and philosophical implications raised by disputations and forced conversions in medieval Jewish history.

Connections to broader themes

The collision of empires (Byzantine and Islamic) and the fate of minority communities highlights how political power structures influence religious life, language, and cultural practice.
The tension between sacred imagery (iconography) and monotheistic worship recurs across Christian and Jewish histories, underscoring the vulnerability of devotional life to political-religious reform.
The use of liturgical poetry and midrash as a living memory of oppression demonstrates how communities preserve identity through language, ritual, and narrative even in times of danger.
The Romaniotes and their influence on later Jewish practice exemplify how regional, diaspora cultures contribute to a broader religious tradition, beyond the more widely known Ashkenazi and Sephardi streams.

Final reminders for exam readiness

Be able to describe the flow of Byzantine-Jewish history from the height of the Byzantine Empire through the rise of Islam, with attention to key emperors and events (Basil I, Leo VI, John Cimizkis) and their policies toward Jews.
Understand iconoclasm and its religious, political, and social implications for both Christians and Jews.
Recognize the role of medieval Italian Jewish chronicles and midrashic literature in shaping memory, identity, and theological reflection under oppression.
Know the terminology (midrash, Romaniotes, disputations, Sayir/Seir) and their relevance to understanding medieval Jewish history.
Be able to connect historical episodes to broader themes in religious ethics, memory, and the interplay between religion and state.