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UNIT 1: Foundations of American Democracy

Big Idea

The U.S. government was built on Enlightenment ideals like natural rights, social contract theory, and popular sovereignty — leading to a system that divides and limits power through federalism, checks and balances, and separation of powers.

1.1 Ideals of Democracy

  • Popular Sovereignty: People are the source of political power.

  • Social Contract: Government exists by the consent of the governed to protect natural rights (life, liberty, property).

  • Republicanism: People elect representatives to make laws on their behalf.

  • Limited Government: Government is restricted by laws (especially the Constitution).

Foundational Document:

  • Declaration of Independence (1776): Written by Thomas Jefferson. Asserts natural rights and that governments exist to protect those rights. If they don’t, the people can alter or abolish them.

1.2 Types of Democracy

  • Participatory Democracy: Emphasizes broad participation (e.g., town halls, protests).

  • Pluralist Democracy: Interest groups compete to influence policy (e.g., NRA, ACLU).

  • Elite Democracy: Limited participation; power is held by a few wealthy, educated elites (e.g., Electoral College, campaign finance influence).

Foundational Documents:

  • Federalist No. 10 (James Madison): Factions are inevitable, but a large republic dilutes their power. Supports pluralist democracy.

  • Brutus No. 1 (Anti-Federalist): Argues a large central government will abuse power and oppress states. Favors participatory democracy and smaller republics.

1.3 Government Power and Individual Rights

  • Articles of Confederation: First U.S. government; weak central gov’t (no power to tax, no exec or judicial branch). Led to issues like Shays’ Rebellion.

  • Constitutional Convention (1787): Created a stronger central government with 3 branches, checks and balances, and federalism.

1.4 Challenges of the Articles of Confederation

  • Weak national government:

    • Could not tax

    • Could not regulate commerce

    • Needed unanimous consent to amend

    • No executive or judiciary

  • States acted like their own countries.

  • Shays’ Rebellion showed the need for a stronger federal government.

1.5 Constitutional Compromises

  • Great Compromise (Connecticut Plan):

    • Bicameral legislature:

      • House: based on population

      • Senate: equal representation

  • 3/5 Compromise: Enslaved people counted as 3/5 for representation and taxation.

  • Electoral College: Compromise between elite and popular vote.

  • Importation of Slaves: Congress could not ban the slave trade until 1808.

1.6 Principles of American Government

  • Separation of Powers: Legislative, executive, and judicial branches are distinct.

  • Checks and Balances: Each branch limits the power of the others.

  • Federalism: Division of power between federal and state governments.

1.7 Ratification Debate

  • Federalists: Supported the Constitution. Believed a large republic would prevent tyranny.

    • Federalist No. 10

  • Anti-Federalists: Feared a strong central government. Demanded a Bill of Rights.

    • Brutus No. 1

1.8 Amending the Constitution

  • Formal Amendment (Article V):

    • Proposal: 2/3 of Congress or 2/3 of states

    • Ratification: 3/4 of state legislatures or conventions

  • Informal Amendment:

    • Judicial interpretation (e.g., Brown v. Board)

    • Legislative action (e.g., Civil Rights Act)

    • Executive actions or customs

1.9 Federalism in Action

  • Enumerated (Expressed) Powers: Specifically listed in Constitution (e.g., Congress declares war).

  • Implied Powers: Not explicitly stated; derived from Necessary and Proper Clause.

  • Reserved Powers: Given to states (10th Amendment).

  • Concurrent Powers: Shared (e.g., taxing, law enforcement).

  • Supremacy Clause: Federal law is supreme over state law.

Key Case:

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):

    • Congress can create a national bank (Necessary and Proper Clause)

    • States can’t tax federal institutions (Supremacy Clause)

  • U.S. v. Lopez (1995):

    • Congress overstepped with the Gun-Free School Zones Act

    • Limited the Commerce Clause

    • Shifted power back to states (devolution)

UNIT 2: Interactions Among Branches of Government

Big Idea

The U.S. Constitution divides power among three branches, creating a system of separation of powers and checks and balances. Each branch has unique roles but also depends on and checks the others.

2.1 Congress Overview

  • Bicameral Legislature: House + Senate

  • House of Representatives:

    • 435 members

    • 2-year terms

    • Based on population

    • More rules (Rules Committee, limited debate)

  • Senate:

    • 100 members (2 per state)

    • 6-year terms (staggered)

    • More informal (filibuster, holds, unanimous consent)

2.2 Powers of Congress

  • Enumerated Powers:

    • Declare war, tax, regulate interstate commerce, coin money

  • Implied Powers:

    • Necessary and Proper Clause

    • Example: Congress creates the IRS, Air Force, etc.

2.3 Policy Making Process

  • Steps:

    1. Introduced in either chamber

    2. Committee review

    3. Floor debate and vote

    4. Sent to other chamber

    5. Conference committee (if needed)

    6. President signs or vetoes

  • House Rules Committee: Controls debate time

  • Filibuster (Senate): Delay tactic — 60 votes needed for cloture

  • Pork-barrel legislation: Funding added to bills for local projects

2.4 Congressional Behavior

  • Delegate: Votes to reflect constituents

  • Trustee: Votes based on own judgment

  • Politico: Mix of both

  • Partisan: Votes with party

  • Franking privilege: Free mail to communicate with constituents

2.5 Roles of the President

  • Formal Powers:

    • Veto bills

    • Commander-in-chief

    • Appoint officials and judges (with Senate approval)

    • Make treaties (with Senate approval)

  • Informal Powers:

    • Executive orders

    • Executive agreements

    • Signing statements

    • Bargaining and persuasion

    • Bully pulpit (media influence)

2.6 Checks on the Presidency

  • Congress: Override veto, impeach, reject nominees, cut funding

  • Courts: Declare actions unconstitutional

  • Public Opinion: Limits how much the president can push policies

2.7 Bureaucracy Overview

  • Implements laws and policies

  • Part of the executive branch

  • Organized into:

    • Cabinet departments (e.g., Defense)

    • Independent agencies (e.g., NASA)

    • Regulatory commissions (e.g., FCC)

    • Government corporations (e.g., USPS)

2.8 Bureaucratic Power

  • Rule-making authority: Write regulations to enforce laws

  • Discretionary authority: Choose how to enforce laws

  • Iron Triangle:

    • Congress, bureaucracy, interest groups

    • Example: Agriculture committee, Dept. of Agriculture, and farmers’ unions

2.9 Holding the Bureaucracy Accountable

  • Congress: Oversight, funding, confirming appointments

  • Courts: Can rule bureaucratic actions unconstitutional

  • President: Appoints heads, executive orders, can reorganize agencies

Key Court Cases

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (again): Implied powers + federal supremacy

  • U.S. v. Lopez: Limits Congress’s use of Commerce Clause

Key Foundational Documents

  • Federalist No. 10: Factions controlled by large republic

  • Federalist No. 51: Checks and balances protect liberty

  • Brutus No. 1: Critique of strong central government

Would you like a printable cheat sheet or flashcards of all this info? Or a study schedule to finish Units 3–5 by tomorrow?