International Organizations: Structure, Function, and Influence

The Global Context: International Organizations in Global Politics

This lecture explores the role of international organizations (IOs) in global politics, differentiating between those part of the UN system and independent ones. There are approximately $7,000$ international organizations in existence. We will examine three significant examples to illustrate their functions and impact.

Interlude 1: The European Union (EU)

Brexit: The UK's Withdrawal from the EU

• Context: Brexit was a dominant issue in news channels pre-COVID, concerning the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union.

• Continuing Debate: Ongoing discussions in the UK about the merits and impact of Brexit on British politics, economics, and the EU itself.

• Referendum Details:

  • Held on $2016-06-23$.

  • Voter turnout: $72\%$.

  • Results: $52\%$ voted to leave, $48\%$ voted to remain.

• Key Figures: Prime Minister David Cameron called the referendum and resigned. Theresa May sought to implement the result but faced challenges. The UK Independence Party (UKIP), led by Nigel Farage (now leading the Reform Party), was a significant proponent of leaving. Farage's current political trajectory is a topic of discussion.

Genesis of the EU

• Post-WWII Context: The EU's origins are rooted in the aftermath of two World Wars, which caused millions of deaths and devastated the European economy.

• $1958$: European Economic Community (EEC):

  • Established by six founding countries: Belgium, (West) Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.

  • Core Idea: Increased economic cooperation would reduce the likelihood of future conflicts.

• Evolution: What began as a purely economic partnership evolved over $60$ years, expanding into other policy areas including security, climate, and foreign relations.

• $1993$: European Union (EU): The EEC was formally renamed the European Union to reflect its broader scope of agreement.

How the EU Works: Institutions

• Leadership: There is no single leader of the European Union; responsibilities are distributed across seven institutions. We focus on the three main ones:

  • European Commission:

    • Described as the "engine room of Europe"; it is the executive body responsible for proposing new laws.

    • Each member state has one commissioner, who is legally independent and bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole, rather than their home country.

    • Commissioners manage specific portfolios, similar to a government cabinet of ministers.

    • Based in Brussels, Belgium.

  • European Parliament:

    • Where lawmakers vote on proposed laws.

    • Based in Brussels and Strasbourg, France (where members meet $12$ times per year).

    • Currently has $751$ Members of European Parliament (MEPs) from $28$ member states (pre-Brexit). Following the UK's departure, this number is set to decrease to $705$.

    • Significance: The only European institution that directly represents EU citizens, who elect their representatives every five years.

  • Council of the European Union:

    • Comprised of ministers from the different EU member states.

    • Ministers with similar portfolios (e.g., finance, education, defense) meet regularly to discuss, amend, and adopt laws.

    • Together with the European Parliament, it forms the main decision-making body of the EU.

  • Distinction: European Council vs. Council of the European Union:

    • The European Council is distinct; it consists of the leaders of the EU member states (heads of state or government) who meet for quarterly summits in Brussels.

    • Discussions here occur at the highest political level.

Other Important European Bodies

• European Court of Justice (ECJ):

  • Based in Luxembourg.

  • Ensures that European law is interpreted and applied uniformly across all EU member states, similar to the role of the US Supreme Court.

• Court of Auditors:

  • Also based in Luxembourg.

  • Acts as the EU's "CFO" (Chief Financial Officer), responsible for overseeing the community budget.

• European Central Bank (ECB):

  • Based in Frankfurt.

  • Responsible for setting monetary policy within the Eurozone.

The Eurozone

• Distinction: The Eurozone is not synonymous with the EU.

• Membership: Currently, only $19$ of the $27$ EU member states form the Eurozone, using the Euro as their currency.

• The remaining member states continue to use their own national currencies.

Challenges and Achievements of the EU

• Criticisms: Critics argue the EU may not survive due to fundamental differences of opinion among and within its member countries. Its large bureaucracy (tens of thousands of people from dozens of nationalities) is also criticized for complexity and inefficiency.

• Achievements: Despite criticisms, the EU arrangement has lasted over $60$ years and has successfully achieved its primary aim of preventing large-scale war between its neighboring countries.

Defining International Organizations (IOs)

International organizations are characterized by several key components:

• Specific Institutions/Entities: They are not merely agreements between states but involve distinct institutional structures.

• Founding Document: There is an expectation of a foundational document (e.g., treaty, charter, constitution) outlining processes for membership, expectations, and responsibilities.

• Formal Processes: These documents detail procedures for joining and, importantly, for leaving an organization. For instance, the UK's exit from the EU required invoking a specific article in the EU treaty, demonstrating that states cannot unilaterally decide to leave.

• Minimum Membership: An international organization must have at least three members, distinguishing it from bilateral arrangements (between two states).

Types of International Organizations

• Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs):

  • Membership is limited exclusively to states (e.g., the United Nations, the European Union).

• Hybrid International Organizations:

  • Allow both states and non-state actors to become members.

• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

  • Typically do not include member states (e.g., civil society actors like Amnesty International).

Related Concepts

• Multilateralism:

  • The principle where multiple states work together to solve problems that transcend national boundaries.

  • It emphasizes cooperation between states to address global issues.

  • Contrasted with unilateralism (one state acting alone) and bilateralism (an agreement between two states).

• Global Governance:

  • Refers to the loose framework of both formal and informal global regulations that constrain state conduct in international politics.

  • It counters the notion that global politics is inherently anarchical and chaotic, highlighting the existence of numerous rules, norms, and institutions governing international behavior.

Purpose and Creation of IOs

• Purpose: IOs are generally created to deal with specific problems.

  • Broad Remits: Some IOs have very broad mandates (e.g., the EU aims to promote peace in Europe, provide freedom, security, and justice within its borders, and protect against external threats).

  • Specialized Agencies: Larger IOs often create specialized agencies to address more specific problems. These agencies can become so significant that they are viewed as IOs in their own right, even while reporting to the parent organization (e.g., WHO under the UN).

  • Specific Focus: Other IOs are smaller and organized around much more particular issues.

• Creation Mechanisms:

  • Traditional Method (International Agreements):

    • States sign a treaty or agreement, establishing the IO.

    • They provide resources and help create the necessary institutional architecture.

    • Example: NATO was founded from a treaty on collective security to counter Soviet expansion.

  • Modern Method (Spin-offs):

    • More commonly, new IOs are created from within existing international organizations through a process of "elevation."

    • Advantages: Easier to establish as they leverage existing institutional arrangements, state buy-in, and resources, leading to quicker formation.

    • Flexibility: Often created to address very specific problems; once the work is completed, they can be reabsorbed into the parent organization.

Historical Perception and Influence of IOs

• Mid-1800s Perception: Early IOs were often assumed to be primarily "apolitical," focusing on solving technical problems in international politics (e.g., those related to trade).

  • International Bureau of Weights and Measures ($1875$):

    • Established to standardize weights and measures globally.

    • Significance: Absolutely fundamental for facilitating international trade and scientific advancements. Ensures consistency (e.g., a "kilo" of sugar is understood uniformly across trading partners).

  • International Telegraph Union ($1865$ / International Telecommunication Union - ITU):

    • Originally focused on telegraphy, later renamed the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

    • Role: Still the international organization responsible for global communications.

    • Activities: Disseminates technical standards for optical fiber technologies, aeronautical and maritime communication technologies, and TV broadcasting.

    • Impact: Your ability to use a mobile phone today is in large part due to the ITU's work in standardizing communications.

Interlude 2: The International Labour Organization (ILO)

• Formation: Created after World War I, reflecting the importance of addressing labor issues in a global context.

• UN Affiliation: Became a specialized agency of the newly formed United Nations after World War II.

• Membership: Currently boasts $187$ member countries and continues to grow.

• Unique Tripartite Structure: The ILO is unique among IOs for its tripartite representation, bringing together governments, employers, and workers in its decision-making processes.

• Activities and Impact:

  • International Labour Conference: Meets annually to discuss and adopt international labor standards.

  • Governing Body: Its executive council meets three times a year.

  • Field Operations: Advises governments and collaborates on country-level projects to implement labor standards and policies through training, education, and research.

  • Modern Relevance: In February $2019$, the ILO adopted the Centennial Declaration for the Future of Work to address transformative changes driven by technological innovations.

  • Global Influence: The ILO has significantly shaped working lives in places like New Zealand and worldwide, advocating for basic labor rights, healthy, safe, and secure living wages, and dignity in work.

The Growing Importance and Influence of IOs

• Shift in Perspective: While early theories assumed states were the most important actors, it's now evident that IOs are often equally, or even more, important.

• Quantitative Growth: There has been an explosion in the number of IOs in recent years:

  • $1909$: Just $37$ international organizations.

  • $2021$: A staggering $7,850$ international organizations (as per page $310$ of the textbook).

  • This proliferation underscores their increasing significance and influence.

• Reasons for Importance and Influence:

  • Endurance: IOs tend to be enduring fixtures in global politics. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (founded $1875$) recently celebrated its $150^{th}$ anniversary, and the ITU (founded $1865$) continues to be crucial for global communications.

  • Shaping State Responses to Complex Problems: IOs often possess specific technical expertise and the capacity to rapidly collect and disseminate information on increasingly complicated global issues.

    • Example: COVID-19 Pandemic and the World Health Organization (WHO):

      • When COVID-19 was first identified in $2020$, the WHO took charge of the global response.

      • It collected daily data from individual countries, updated its global dashboard, and disseminated research on testing and treatment.

      • The WHO also led efforts to sequence new variants and facilitated vaccine development and dissemination.

      • Individual states relied heavily on the WHO's technical expertise and its mechanisms for information dissemination during this unprecedented crisis.

Interlude 3: ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

• Regional Focus: ASEAN is a prominent Asian regional organization, offering insights into regionalism (a topic for next week).

• Formation and Membership:

  • Founded in $1967$ by five countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.

  • Later expanded to include Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia, totaling $10$ members today.

  • Its formation occurred during the superpower rivalry of the Cold War.

• Economic Diversity and Strength:

  • Metaphor: Often described as an orchestra, with each country playing a different instrument due to significant internal variations.

  • Indonesia alone accounts for nearly $40\%$ of the region's economic output.

  • GDP per capita varies significantly; Singapore's (the highest) is roughly $24$ times greater than that of the lowest member (e.g., Laos or Myanmar).

  • Combined GDP: Approximately $2.92$ trillion ($2,920,000,000,000$).

  • Labor Force: ASEAN boasts the world's third-largest labor force, with over $600$ million people (behind China and India, but ahead of the EU and US).

  • Digital Economy: Forecasted to grow to $200$ billion by $2025$.

• Geopolitical Role and Challenges:

  • Superpower Rivalry: ASEAN finds itself in the middle of current superpower rivalry, particularly between the US and China.

  • South China Sea Dispute: This is a particularly divisive issue.

    • China claims nearly all of the South China Sea, while four ASEAN nations have competing claims.

    • The US conducts "freedom of navigation operations" (e.g., sending nuclear-powered aircraft carriers near contested islands). China often responds with significant naval displays.

    • Divisiveness: In $2012$, for the first time in its history, the $10$ ASEAN states failed to issue a joint statement due to disagreements on how to address China's claims.

    • Evolving Dynamics: The Philippines, under President Rodrigo Duterte, shifted from an international rule case against China to pursuing stronger ties, straining relations with the US.

    • Indonesia, which does not have a claim in the South China Sea, lobbies for ASEAN to control its waters.

    • Some ASEAN countries ally with one superpower, while others, like Singapore, maintain substantive ties with both.

  • Wider International Engagement: India, Australia, and other countries are deepening relations with ASEAN, indicating its growing diplomatic importance.

  • Current Challenges: Singapore, as the ASEAN chairman (in the year the video was made), faced challenges in navigating between major powers while safeguarding economic growth, especially concerning talks with China on a Code of Conduct in the South China Sea.

Theoretical Perspectives on International Organizations

Different theoretical lenses offer distinct interpretations of the role and impact of IOs:

• Liberal Explanations:

  • States create IOs based on the belief in mutual advantage and benefit through cooperation.

  • IOs establish rules and norms to mitigate problems associated with the anarchical conditions of global politics.

  • Idealists place significant faith in the capacity of IOs, and their importance should not be underestimated.

• Realist Explanations:

  • Realists acknowledge the importance of IOs but argue they are not immune to power politics.

  • For realists, IOs serve as another forum where dynamics of power politics play out among states.

• Critical Explanations (e.g., Marxism):

  • Critical theorists (like Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri) suggest that IOs might function to make the world safer for capitalism.

  • They could cultivate specific rules and norms that primarily serve capitalist interests.

Next Lecture

Tomorrow's lecture will focus on global health, an issue previously neglected in global politics.