The First World War and Balkan Crises (Notes)

7.4. THE CRISES IN THE BALKANS

  • The Balkan Peninsula in SE Europe had been a long-standing trouble spot in European politics for decades, giving rise to the chronic Eastern Question.
  • By the Treaty of Berlin (1878), European powers believed the Eastern Question was solved, but new problems and rivalries soon emerged from the Berlin settlement.
  • The Ottoman Empire was weakening; great powers including Russia, Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, and Italy pursued their own interests, creating a volatile environment.
  • Balkan nationalism emerged as a central issue, with Serbia becoming a champion of Slav nationalism. Many Serbs lived in the Habsburg empire as well, creating tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
  • Austria’s early Balkan policy: after the Berlin Treaty, Bosnia (a Serb-majority region) was placed under Austrian protection and then annexed by Austria. Austria feared Russian opposition and pacified Russia with a verbal promise — the (misnamed) Agreement of Bachlan — to support Russia’s rights in the Dardanelles; this promise was never fulfilled.
  • The Serb–South Slav question intensified as nationalist zeal grew; Bosnia remained a flashpoint due to Serb populations there.
  • The Balkan scene saw two wars: the First Balkan War (1912) and the Second Balkan War (1913). These wars reshaped borders but left lingering tensions among Balkan states.
  • After the First Balkan War, the Great Powers formed the Treaty of London (1913) to partition gains; Bulgaria felt under-compensated and attacked South Macedonia, triggering the Second Balkan War, resolved by the Treaty of Bucharest (1913).
  • Consequences summarized:
    • (a) Balkan nations defied the great powers and began to shape their own fate.
    • (b) The London terms were revised by Bucharest (except Albanian terms).
    • (c) Serbia gained significant territory; Romania gained strategic positions.
    • (d) The Ottoman Empire disappeared from Europe; Austria–Russia rivalry intensified, with Germany becoming involved.
    • (e) Serbia sought the restoration of Bosnia–Herzegovina; tensions with Austria intensified.

- (f) Bulgaria shifted its alliance toward Germany and Austria, while Serbia moved closer to Russia, laying groundwork for future conflict. The Balkan Wars thus prepared the stage for World War I.

  • 7.5. THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN RIVALRY AND SARAJEVO MURDER, JULY CRISIS AND CONSEQUENCE (short-term causes)

    • The rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Serbia intensified due to: (a) Austrian annexation of Bosnia–Herzegovina, which was predominantly Serb; (b) Austria’s covert support to Bulgaria against Serbia during the Balkan Wars; (c) Austria’s attempt to hinder Serbia from reaching the Adriatic coast.
    • Serbian nationalism grew militant, with terrorist groups formed to strike Austro-Hungarian leaders to reclaim Bosnia. Several abortive plots were carried out against Austrian Crown Prince Ferdinand.
    • On 28 June 1914, Austrian Crown Prince Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb terrorist named Princip — the event known as the Sarajevo murder.
    • An inquiry suggested Serbian government involvement was unlikely; the act was attributed to a terrorist organization called the Black Hand.
    • Austria demanded an apology and indemnity; Germany pressed Austria to issue a time-bound ultimatum to Serbia. Russia began mobilization in support of Serbia; Germany counter-mobilized.
    • Austria declared war on Serbia; Germany mobilized; Russia mobilized in support of Serbia; Germany invaded Belgium and France, triggering a wider war. The Great War began in earnest in 1914.

  • The course of the First World War and review of important battles (summary):

    • The war began on 3 August 1914 when Germany declared war on France.
    • The conflict stretched across three main fronts: Western Front, Eastern Front, and the Balkan/Southeast Europe theater, with naval fronts at sea.
    • German strategy aimed to quickly defeat France by invading through Belgium, encircling Paris, but Belgian resistance and Allied defense halted the rapid advance.
    • Key Western Front battles and phases:
    • Early stalemate and trench warfare along the Marne line.
    • The Battle of Ypres (April 1915) introduced chlorine gas as a battlefield weapon; subsequent gas warfare evolved with mustard gas and phosgene.
    • The Battle of Verdun (1916): enormous French losses (~3\times 10^{5}) with German losses smaller in comparison; French resolve under Petain.
    • The Somme (1916): Allied offensive to relieve Verdun; heavy Allied casualties (e.g., ~60{,}000 British casualties on a single day; ~26{,}000 killed by German fire on that day).
    • Vimy Ridge (Allied success near Arras) and the French assault at Champagne.
    • 1917–18 saw a shift with larger-scale tank deployments; Germany’s 1918 offensive pushed deep into Allied lines, including the breakthrough near Paris.
    • The Battle of Marne (May 1918) and attempts to advance on Paris; Allied lines held.
    • The Allied entry into victory gained momentum as the United States joined in 1917, bringing fresh troops and vast supplies; coordination with British and French forces helped turn the tide.
    • The war extended to the seas: blockade of German ports by the British Navy; major naval battles at Falkland Islands, Dogger Bank, and the Battle of Jutland.
    • The Lusitania disaster (1915) underscored the perils of submarine warfare and contributed to shifting U.S. public sentiment against Germany.
    • In the South-East, British operations targeted Gallipoli (1915) to knock Turkey out of the war and secure a sea route to Russia — the campaign ended in failure after heavy losses and reorganization toward the Balkans.
    • Italy’s role: Vienna’s successes in the Alps; Caporetto (1917) was a major Austro-German victory that forced a retreat of Italian forces; Allied relief at Venice and halt of the German advance followed.
    • The war also saw rapid technological innovation: trench warfare, gas, tanks, aircraft, submarines, and armored fighting vehicles reshaping tactics and strategy.
    • The collapse of the Russian front followed the 1917 Russian Revolution; the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) imposed harsh terms on Russia and allowed Germany to redirect forces westward.

  • Key technologies and tactical innovations of World War I (impactful shifts):

    • Trench warfare and fortifications led to the development of concrete pillboxes and fortified positions; tunneling and heavy artillery defined long campaigns.
    • Poison gas: chlorine first used at the Second Battle of Ypres (April 1915); later gas warfare expanded to mustard gas and phosgene; gas masks and protection evolved rapidly.
    • Tanks: initial models were unreliable, but by 1917–1918 tanks demonstrated potential, especially at Cambrai; tanks required infantry coordination for effectiveness; eventual mechanized warfare laid groundwork for post-war developments.
    • Air warfare: early spotters with handheld weapons evolved to aircraft with machine guns, interrupter gear, and coordination with observers for bombing and reconnaissance; Zeppelins conducted raids on Britain; long-range strategic bombing expanded later in the war.
    • Observation balloons: used for reconnaissance and artillery spotting; protected by anti-aircraft and anti-aircraft craft; crews carried parachutes for evacuation when under attack.
    • Submarines: German U-boats aimed to starve Britain of resources; the convoy system and anti-submarine warfare reduced losses; the submarine campaign was a central strategic weapon of the naval war.

  • Why did the U.S.A. join the First World War? (Overview of factors and their significance)

    • Monroe Doctrine (1823): admonition against European interference in the Americas and non-intervention in Europe; historically, the U.S. had pursued isolationism before the war.
    • Submarine warfare and neutrality: German unrestricted submarine warfare threatened neutral shipping, including American vessels; the sinking of passenger ships such as the Lusitania intensified anti-German sentiment in the U.S.
    • Economic and commercial interests: American industrialists and armament producers sought to sell resources and weapons to the Allies; Britain and France were major buyers; a prolonged German victory would threaten these markets and profits.
    • German response to American protests: Germany argued about freedom of the seas and suggested American ships should avoid the ring of submarine activity; American delegations debated three options: remain neutral, acquiesce, or enter the war; Wilson chose entry.
    • Political balance of power: fears that a German victory would destabilize the balance of power in Europe; warnings from British leaders framed the war as also protecting American interests.
    • Cultural and political sympathy: strong cultural ties to Britain and France among many Americans; shared democratic values with the Allies contrasted with the autocratic German regime.
    • Economic and strategic calculation: American bankers had extended credit to the Allies; with withdrawals and potential losses looming, entering the war protected these financial interests and preserved supply lines.
    • The overall effect of U.S. involvement: American resources, manpower, and industrial capacity provided crucial leverage; the Bolshevik Revolution and the withdrawal of Russia in 1917 intensified the need for American intervention to secure a Western Front, turning the tide in favor of the Allies.

  • 7.6. CAUSES OF GERMANY'S DEFEAT IN 1918: WHY DID THE CENTRAL POWERS COLLAPSE IN 1918?

    • (1) Manpower and resources: Germany began with strong forces but had far fewer resources and people than the combined Entente powers; prolonged war exhausted German manpower, especially by the fifth year when German youth had diminished.
    • (2) Material shortages and blockade: Germany faced severe shortages of food, fuel, rubber, and chemicals; the Allied naval blockade strangled German supply lines and constrained production; despite attempts to break the blockade, the convoy system and anti-submarine measures limited German success.
    • (3) Strategic and operational errors: Ludendorff’s leadership made several blunders, including changes in offensive timing and attempts to fight on multiple fronts; German offensive strategy failed to deliver a decisive breakthrough before Allied reserves could rally.
    • (4) Leadership and morale problems: a transition from aristocratic to more democratic leadership among the Allies, with leaders like Lloyd George and Clemenceau providing clearer direction; German leadership hesitated and failed to mobilize decisive, unified offensives.
    • (5) Geographic and strategic vulnerability: Germany lacked depth of defense and strategic flexibility; offensive operations in the late years stretched resources and failed to exploit opportunities, unlike the strategic depth available to the Allies via their colonial resources and better logistics.
    • (Additional contributing factor) The entry of the United States and the subsequent infusion of manpower and material resources tipped the balance decisively against Germany; allied coordination and superior industrial output overwhelmed German capabilities.

  • Connections and implications:

    • The Balkan crises and Balkan Wars fundamentally reshaped the map of Europe and exposed the fragility of alliances and imperial ambitions.
    • The Sarajevo assassination acted as a catalyst that drew great powers into a wider war, illustrating how local grievances can escalate into global conflict when multiple powers have intertwined security commitments.
    • The First World War accelerated modernization in warfare, technology, and social change, with lasting geopolitical consequences, including the collapse of empires and redrawing of borders in Europe and the Middle East.
    • Ethical and humanitarian implications included mass violence and ethnic nationalism, notably the Armenian massacres in the Ottoman Empire during this period, and the broader toll on civilian life and refugees.

  • Quick references to key dates and terms (for quick recall):

    • Treaty of Berlin: 1878
    • Anglo-French Entente: 1904 (precursor to the Triple Entente)
    • Balkan Wars: 1912-1913
    • Treaty of London: 1913
    • Treaty of Bucharest: 1913
    • Sarajevo assassination: 28\, June\, 1914
    • Ultimatum to Serbia: 23\, July\, 1914
    • Start of WWI: 3\, August\, 1914
    • Battle of Verdun: 1916; Battle of the Somme: 1916
    • U.S. entry into WWI: 1917
    • Armistice: 11\, November\, 1918
    • Brest-Litovsk: 1918
    • Battle outcomes and turning points: Marne, Ypres, Jutland, Gallipoli, Caporetto, Amiens, and the final Allied offensives in 1918

  • Note on terminology and slight transcription inconsistencies observed in the source:

    • The source refers to the “Agreement of Bachlan” regarding Russian rights in the Dardanelles, which appears to be a misrendering; the intended reference is likely a diplomatic understanding that was not fulfilled.
    • Some year references (e.g., the “Triple Entente” formation and certain dates) reflect typical classroom simplifications or minor typographical errors (e.g., “Ypless” for Ypres). The core events and dates, however, are preserved.

  • Summary takeaway:

    • The Balkans acted as a spark for a broader system of alliances and rivalries in Europe.
    • The assassination in Sarajevo revealed the fragility of multi-power diplomacy and the ease with which regional conflicts could escalate into global war.
    • World War I demonstrated the transformative interaction of technology, naval strategy, and mass mobilization, ultimately leading to the collapse of empires and setting the stage for major geopolitical changes in the 20th century.