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What methods did monarchs in Russia, France, and Spain employ to consolidate their rule? Except Q (ALL TRUE BELOW)
Promote religious unity without making the Church dominant
Promote ethnic – political unity
(proto-nationalism)
Weaken the power of nobility
Centralize control of taxation
What were major obstacles preventing the growth of monarchies in southeastern Europe?
The Ottoman Turks occupied much of the land or made conquest of it.
The rise and support of a small merchant, professional class in comparison to what happened in Western Europe (an emergence of a middle class – that would have influence).
(Keep in mind too that there was no Renaissance experienced in Southeastern Europe. It is largely farmland, rural.)
Describe political power in Poland
The landed aristocracy wielded the most power. Monarch wrestled for power against the landed aristocracy.
Charles V's (Carlos I) empire included what territories in the mid-16th century?
An Except Question
Austria – Charles V
Venice VENICE WAS NOT PART OF IT
Netherlands
Spain – Carlos I
South America (New Granada and Peru
Mexico – (New Spain)
Philippines
What major issues were behind the wars in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries?
Disputes religiously and politically between princes and monarchs. Disputes involve the centralization of government. Princes liked decentralization b/c it gave them more power.
What did the Holy Roman Emperor agree that German princes should do because of the Peace of Augsburg?
German Princes would be able to choose whether their lands would be Catholic or Lutheran (Evangelical).
What provisions are found in the Edict of Nantes, 1598? (Several Questions)
Ended the French Religious Wars
Negotiated by Henri IV, Huguenots will be respected by Catholics in cities / regions governed by a prince observing Huguenot faith.
(7% to 15%, a powerful interest by wealth, were Huguenots)
Peace came at the price of Religious freedom. (Catholic or Huguenot)
A pragmatic solution – the country was probably not as strong as it could be because of some disunity.
Henri IV was a politique and so was Elizabeth I and to a lesser instance was James I of England.
What effect did the Thirty Years' War have on the German-speaking population between 1618 and 1650?
The 30 Years War was fought in German lands, and consequently, about 1/3 of the population of German speaking people perished.
More would have died had it not been for the potato.
Which of the following was the most significant factor in the rise of national states in western Europe?
The rise and support of the middle class/merchant, professional class.
10. What were Louis XIV’s policies, values, and ideas as king? An Except Q. (ANYTHING SAYING LOUIS XIV STRENGTHENED PARLIAMENT OR SHARED POEWR IS WRONG) ALL TRUE BELOW
Policies began by Richelieu and continued by Mazarin
Creating and growing the bureaucratic state.
Created a new center of government at Versailles.
Promoted French culture, art, and goods.
Adopting the mercantilist policies of Colbert.
France needed to reduce the power of the Habsburgs, leading to expensive and avoidable wars.
Grow the boundaries of France to natural boundaries, leading to expensive and avoidable wars.
Louis XIV governed with out consent of a parliament/legislature (the Estates General)
11. What were Cardinal Richelieu's goals as an advisor to the monarch? Which goal was likely most important to Cardinal Richelieu?
Destroy (or greatly weaken) the power of the Huguenot princes and other nobles.
12. In what way did King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden play a key role in European affairs in the first half of the 17th century?
He led the Protestant coalition against Catholic Europe, led by the Habsburgs.
13. What was the significance of the election of Mikhail Romanov in 1613 as the new czar by the boyar council, besides the beginning of a new dynasty?
The “time of troubles” involved:
Marked the end of Rurik Dynasty,
Famine – 1/3 of Russians died
Polish – Lithuanians occupied portions of Russia.
14. Which of the following combination of states blocked Russian expansion during the 16th and 17th centuries?
Sweden, Poland ( - Lithuania), Ottoman Empire
15. What was Elizabeth I's contribution to the religion controversy in England during her rule?
Given, it was England's Golden Age. Elizabeth reestablished the independence of the English Church from Rome, as her father had done in 1534. (Act of Supremacy)
The next year, the Act of Uniformity.
16. Why did France support Protestant rebels against Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire? (Thirty Years War)
Weaken and fragmented the Holy Roman Empire, led by the Habsburg family.
17. What was the main result of the Edict of Nantes (1598)?
It established the principles of religious toleration between and equal rights for French Protestants and Catholics.
18. What was the consequence of Louis XIV revoking the Edict of Nantes? (thereby persecuting of Huguenots)
Many Huguenots left France, causing a weakening of the French economy.
19. What was vital to the success of the burgeoning trade cities and ports?
Background:
Prior to the Renaissance, the Mediterranean region had been the center of power and trade in the Western World as first Greece, then Rome and Constantinople, dominated the region.
In the 16th century, power shifted to new trade centers, primarily on the Atlantic coast, as improved navigation spurred global trade.
(Hint: Beginning of capitalism – economic Freedom brings about dramatic economic growth! )
A Non-Absolutist approach to trade
(What about Mercantilism?
I don’t have an answer, but keep in mind Capitalism works better.)
20. Who should be credited with the School of Navigation in Portugal? (There was no school of navigation– but govt helped develop skills of ship captains)
Background:
The “School of Sagres," existed in the early years of the so-called “Age of Discovery.”
The school supposedly engaged astronomers, cartographers, mathematicians, and instrument makers to teach the art of ocean exploration.
Prince Henry, the Navigator
21. Identify the following people and their significance in the Age of Discovery: (Two questions, one an except)
Christopher Columbus What he did: Crossed the Atlantic in 1492, “discovering” the Americas for Spain (though indigenous people were already there).
Why significant: His voyage kicked off European exploration and colonization of the New World.
Sir Francis Drake What he did: English privateer and explorer, the second person to circumnavigate the globe (1577–1580).
Why significant: Expanded English maritime power, raided Spanish ships, and helped England compete in global exploration. Ferdinand and Isabella What they did: Monarchs of Spain who sponsored Columbus; unified Spain politically and religiously.
Why significant: Their support funded early voyages and gave Spain the power to become a global empire.
Bartolome de Las Casas What he did: A Spanish priest and historian who advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples in the Americas.
Why significant: He was not an explorer or a navigator. He did not help discover new lands or expand European empires.
⚠ This is why he’s the EXCEPT answer — he was influential historically, but his role was critique and reform, not exploration. Ferdinand Magellan What he did: Led the first circumnavigation of the globe (1519–1522), though he died before completing it.
Why significant: Proved the world could be circumnavigated by sea, important for trade and European global power.
Vasco de Gama What he did: First European to reach India by sailing around Africa (1498).
Why significant: Opened a sea route to Asia for trade, making Portugal a dominant maritime power Henry the Navigator What he did: Portuguese prince who sponsored exploration along the west coast of Africa.
Why significant: Advanced navigation technology, mapping, and training for explorers.
Amerigo Vespucci What he did: Explored South America, realized it was a “New World” separate from Asia.
Why significant: The Americas were named after him because of his contributions to mapping and understanding the New World.
22. How did Spain profit from colonies in the Americas?
Extracted precious metal (Au & Ag)
Sugar also an extracted resource
23. What historic institution was encomienda based?
The feudal manor
24. Identify the social and racial classes found in Spanish America.
1. Peninsulares
Who they were: People born in Spain (Europe), living in the colonies.
Significance:
Top of the social hierarchy.
Held the most political power and high government or church positions.
Remember: “Born in Spain = top of the pyramid.”
2. Creoles (Criollos)
Who they were: People of Spanish descent born in the Americas.
Significance:
Wealthy landowners, could be rich, but usually excluded from the highest political offices.
Often led independence movements in the 18th–19th centuries.
Remember: “Spanish blood, American birth = rich but second in power.”
3. Mulattos
Who they were: People of mixed European and African ancestry.
Significance:
Often free, sometimes held skilled jobs, but below Creoles socially.
Remember: “Mulattos = mixed European & African.”
4. Mestizos
Who they were: People of mixed European and Indigenous (Native American) ancestry.
Significance:
Typically worked as artisans, laborers, or small farmers.
Larger in number than Mulattos.
Remember: “Mestizos = mixed European & Native.”
5. Negros
Who they were: Enslaved Africans or their descendants.
Significance:
Usually forced to work on plantations, in mines, or as laborers.
Bottom tier of the hierarchy except for Indigenous people in some regions.
Remember: “Africans = forced labor, low social status.”
6. Indios (Indigenous people)
Who they were: Native Americans.
Significance:
Often subject to encomienda system (forced labor).
Sometimes lived in their own communities but under colonial control.
Remember: “Native people = exploited under colonial rule.”
25. What was the significance of the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)? The pope negotiated it
Spain got … all of the Americas except Brazil (they thought it was Asia – but not – requiring another treaty!)
Portugal … Brazil, Africa, Asia and East Indies trade
26. What were factors that prompted the Portuguese to explore overseas trade routes and establish colonies?
Shorter route to Japan! Not the Reason
Remember that Japan cut off all trade but to one Dutch ship a year from 1639 to 1854.
Spread Christianity
African Gold
Learn seafaring science from the Muslims and Chinese
27. What motivated Europeans to find a route to the Indies? An Except Q.
Traveling through Venice and the Ottoman lands became too expensive because of taxation.
28.What prompted the importation of African labor?
Labor shortage in the Americas
Native populations declined drastically (disease + conquest).
Colonists needed workers for agriculture and mining.
Agricultural demands
Sugar, tobacco, and other cash crops were labor-intensive.
Large plantations required a steady, controllable workforce.
Encomienda system limitations
Originally, Spanish used Native labor via the encomienda system.
As Native populations fell, colonists needed a reliable alternative.
European demand for profit
Colonists wanted to maximize production and profits.
Enslaved Africans became a “permanent” labor solution for plantations.
African experience & resilience
Africans often had experience with agriculture and immunity to Old World diseases, making them more “suitable” (from the colonists’ perspective) for forced labor.
29. Terms (Two ques.)
1. Columbian Exchange
Definition: The widespread transfer of plants, animals, foods, human populations, diseases, and ideas between the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia after 1492.
Significance:
Brought new crops to Europe (potatoes, maize) → population growth.
Brought Old World animals and diseases to the Americas → massive impact on Native populations.
Tip to remember: “Everything crossed the Atlantic!”
2. Homogenocene
Definition: A term used to describe the era in which human activity has significantly homogenized the world’s ecosystems and cultures.
Significance:
Caused by global trade, colonization, and migration.
Spread species, cultures, and ideas, but often reduced local diversity.
Tip to remember: “Everything becomes the same” → human-caused global uniformity.
3. Mercantilism
Definition: Economic policy where the government seeks to build a strong, self-sufficient economy.
Key Features:
Export more than import (positive trade balance).
Accumulate gold and silver.
Establish colonies to provide raw materials.
Use tariffs to protect domestic industries.
Tip to remember: “Wealth = power, power = self-sufficient economy.”
4. Middle Passage
Definition: The forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas.
Significance:
Part of the transatlantic slave trade.
Extremely harsh conditions → high mortality rates.
Tip to remember: “Middle leg of the triangular trade”
5. Triangular Trade
Definition: Trade network connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Pattern:
Europe → Africa: manufactured goods (guns, cloth, alcohol)
Africa → Americas (Middle Passage): enslaved Africans
Americas → Europe: cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton) and raw materials
Tip to remember: “Triangle = 3 continents, 3 types of cargo.”
30. What contributed to the rise of the Dutch Republic during the 17th century?
An Except Q.
1st half 17th C – Amsterdam econ. capital of Europe – Spain and Dutch were at war
Religious toleration
Amsterdam banking (became business hub in that time)
colonial possessions
the leadership of William of Orange as a monarch and the political arrangement made with the Estates General.
31. What mercantilist policies were implemented by Jean Baptiste Colbert between 1648 and 1653?
Tariffs (external: against foreign nations)
Creation of the French East India Company
Improving infrastructure: roads, bridges, and ports
Creating new industries
Creating a commercial code (laws) covering the entire country
32. What impact did the British Navigation Acts (1651) have on Anglo Dutch relations?
An Except Q.
Relations between the two countries worsened because the Dutch saw these acts as a direct threat to their commercial activities.
33. Why did the Stuart Monarchs have difficulty working with Parliament?
Stuarts did not want to recognize Parliament’s authority to consent to taxation. (Cause of the Eng. Civil War)
Identify the person’s role the English Civil War and Commonwealth Period
1. Charles I (1600–1649)
Role: King of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Significance:
Believed in divine right of kings → conflict with Parliament.
Refused to recognize Parliament’s authority to consent to taxation.
His actions sparked the English Civil War (1642–1651).
Outcome: Tried, convicted of treason, and executed in 1649 — the first time a reigning English monarch was executed by Parliament.
Tip to remember: “Divine Right → Civil War → Execution”
2. Sir William Waller (c. 1597–1668)
Role: Parliamentary general during the English Civil War.
Significance:
Led Parliament’s New Model Army forces in early battles against Royalists.
Key military figure but not the top leader like Cromwell.
Tip to remember: “Parliamentary general under Cromwell’s era.”
3. Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658)
Role: Leader of Parliament’s forces, Lord Protector of England (1649–1658).
Significance:
Commanded the New Model Army to victory over Royalists.
Played a central role in Charles I’s trial and execution.
Ruled as Lord Protector, effectively a military dictator during the Commonwealth period.
Tip to remember: “Military genius → executes Charles I → rules England as Lord Protector.”
4. John Pym (1584–1643)
Role: Leader of the Parliamentary opposition in the House of Commons.
Significance:
Criticized Charles I’s policies and taxation without Parliament.
Helped organize Parliamentarian forces and push for the Petition of Right (1628).
Died before the end of the Civil War but was crucial in building opposition to the king.
Tip to remember: “Leader in Parliament → opposed king → early architect of resistance.”
35. What was the most significance of Charles I execution in 1649?
It was the first time in history a parliament had voted on the execution of a monarch.
36. What contributed to the opposition to Cromwell's rule in England? Except
Strict Puritan social policies that alienated many Anglicans
Cruel treatment to Irish Catholic dissenters
Dissolving the Rump Parliament
37. What contributed the most to growing opposition to Charles II?
Charles II growing admiration to Roman Catholicism and Louis XIV
38. Why did the ascension of James II lead to a constitutional crisis in England?
James II was Roman Catholic. At the time of his ascension, James’s heirs were Protestant. However, James had remarried and announced his intent to have a male heir, establishing a Catholic dynasty, restoring the Roman Catholic Church in England.
39. Identify the following and significance
Magna Carta, 1215
Act of Supremacy, 1534,
In 1558 Elizabeth reestablished the independence of the English Church from Rome, as her father had done in 1534.
Act of Uniformity, 1559
Elizabeth recognizes one Church, the Anglican Church, in England.
1. Petition of Right (1628)
What it was: A parliamentary document presented to Charles I.
Key Points:
Challenged the king’s authority on taxation without Parliament’s consent.
Opposed arbitrary imprisonment and the quartering of soldiers.
Significance:
Early constitutional step limiting the power of the monarchy.
Helped spark tensions leading to the English Civil War.
Tip to remember: “Parliament says no to taxes without consent.”
2. Long Parliament (1640–1660)
What it was: Parliament convened after Charles I called it due to financial needs.
Key Points:
Passed laws limiting the king’s powers.
Led to the impeachment of Charles I’s advisors and eventually the Civil War.
Significance:
Lasted unusually long (20 years), showing Parliament’s growing power.
Played a central role in opposing Charles I.
Tip to remember: “Parliament stands long against the king.”
3. Rump Parliament (1648–1653)
What it was: The remainder of Parliament after Pride’s Purge (1648), when the army removed MPs loyal to the king.
Key Points:
Conducted the trial and execution of Charles I.
Abolished the monarchy and House of Lords temporarily.
Significance:
Established the Commonwealth of England, the first republican government in English history.
Tip to remember: “Rump = trial & execution of Charles I → republic.”
4. Solemn League and Covenant (1643)
What it was: Agreement between English Parliamentarians and Scottish Covenanters.
Key Points:
Scotland agreed to help Parliament fight Charles I in exchange for religious reform along Presbyterian lines.
Significance:
Strengthened Parliamentarian military efforts in the Civil War.
Tip to remember: “Parliament + Scotland alliance → fight king.”
5. Declaration of Indulgence (1672)
What it was: A declaration by Charles II suspending laws against Catholics and dissenting Protestants.
Significance:
Attempted to promote religious tolerance but angered Parliament.
Seen as evidence of Charles II’s pro-Catholic sympathies.
Tip to remember: “Charles II tries tolerance → Parliament angry.”
6. Test Act (1673)
What it was: Law passed by Parliament under Charles II.
Key Points:
Required all officials to take Anglican communion and deny Catholic doctrines.
Significance:
Limited Catholics’ ability to hold office → strengthened Anglican dominance.
Tip to remember: “Catholics barred from office → Anglican control.”
English Bill of Rights, 1688 (Glorious Revolution) Limited monarchy was firmly established in England – a Parliamentary monarchy – a govt Wm and Mary were required to accept.
Toleration Act, 1689 (Glorious Revolution)
Act of Settlement, 1701 – Stipulated that no Catholic, only an Anglican, could be the monarch of England
40. Important treaties
Peace of Augsburg, 1555
German Princes would be able to choose whether their lands would be Catholic or Lutheran (Evangelical).
1. Peace of the Pyrenees (1659)
Parties: France and Spain
Significance:
Ended the war between France and Spain (part of the larger Thirty Years’ War conflicts).
Marked French dominance in Europe and decline of Spanish power.
Cemented Louis XIV’s territorial gains in the north and northeast of Spain.
2. Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Parties: Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden, Spain, Netherlands, and German states
Significance:
Ended the Thirty Years’ War.
Recognized sovereignty of German princes (Peace of Augsburg confirmed).
Marked the beginning of the modern state system and religious toleration for Catholics and Protestants.
3. Treaty of Madrid (1670)
Parties: Spain and England
Significance:
Recognized English possession of Jamaica and other Caribbean territories.
Aimed to reduce conflict between colonial powers in the Americas.
4. Peace of Nimwegen (1678)
Parties: France vs. Dutch Republic, Spain, and others
Significance:
Ended the Franco-Dutch War.
Confirmed French territorial gains in the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté.
Strengthened Louis XIV’s France in Europe.
5. Treaty of Ryswick (1697)
Parties: France, England, Spain, and the Dutch Republic
Significance:
Ended the Nine Years’ War.
Returned territories to pre-war owners in many cases.
Recognized William III as King of England.
6. Peace of Utrecht and Rastatt (1713–1714)
Parties: France, Spain, Austria, Britain, and others
Significance:
Ended the War of Spanish Succession.
Spain kept throne but lost European territories.
Britain gained Gibraltar and Newfoundland → expansion of naval power.
Established balance of power principle in Europe.
7. Peace of Nystadt (1721)
Parties: Sweden and Russia
Significance:
Ended the Great Northern War.
Marked the rise of Russia as a European great power under Peter the Great.
Sweden lost significant territories (Baltic lands).
8. Peace of Paris (1763)
Parties: Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal
Significance:
Ended the Seven Years’ War (French & Indian War in North America).
Britain gained Canada, Florida, and colonies in India.
France lost most of its North American holdings.
Marked British global dominance.
Notes: read the passage Edict of Nantes (4 questions