AMSCO unit 6 (ocr)

Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Cities and suburbs are constantly changing in layout, function, and size.
Geographers study why people move into, within, or out of urban areas.
Geographers create models to show city distribution and size, identifying patterns explaining city growth and interconnections.
These models help analyze city organization and development, typically with zones for commerce, housing, and other functions.

Urban Landscapes and Urban Challenges

Landscapes and social spaces reflect attitudes and values.
Choices like housing density and airport location reveal priorities.
High population concentrations offer opportunities and challenges.
Challenges arise from decline (e.g., industry moving out) and sustainability (e.g., maintaining clean air and water).

Enduring Understandings

(PSO-6) City presence and growth vary due to physical geography and resources.
(IMP-6) Built landscape reflects population attitudes, values, and power balance.
(SPS-6) Urban areas face unique economic, political, cultural, and environmental challenges.

Chapter 15: Origin, Distribution, and Systems of Cities

Topics 6.1-6.4

Topic 6.1: The Origin and Influences of Urbanization

Learning Objective: Explain the processes that initiate and drive urbanization and suburbanization. (PS0-6.A)

Topic 6.2: Cities Across the World

Learning Objective: Explain the processes that initiate and drive urbanization and suburbanization. (PS0-6.A)

Topic 6.3: Cities and Globalization

Learning Objective: Explain how cities embody processes of globalization. (PS0-6.B)

Topic 6.4: The Size and Distribution of Cities

Learning Objective: Identify urban concepts (hierarchy, interdependence, relative size, spacing) useful for explaining city distribution, size, and interaction. (PS0-6.C)

6.1 The Origin and Influence of Urbanization

Essential Question: What are the processes that initiate and drive urbanization?
Ecumene: Permanently inhabited portion of Earth's surface with varying community types and population densities.
Settlements are classified as rural or urban areas.

Factors Driving Urbanization

Settlement: A place with a permanent human population.
First agricultural settlements: ≈12,000 years ago enabled permanent settlements as inhabitants could farm and subsist on surrounding fields.
Before agricultural settlements, hunting and gathering necessitated temporary or movable shelters.
True urban settlements (cities) developed due to:
- Agricultural surplus
- Social stratification and leadership class/urban elite
- Job specialization
Agricultural surplus resulted from irrigation, farming, and domestication, enabling more people to live in one location.
A ruling class emerged to control products and people.
Job specialization arose because not everyone needed to produce food, leading to manufacturing, service sector jobs, etc.
Cities developed as economic centers of service, manufacturing, and trade.

Urbanization

The process of developing towns and cities.
An ongoing process that includes causes and effects of a city's growth.
Describing a region as urbanized indicates the presence of cities.
Percent urban: Proportion of the population living in cities vs. rural areas.
Urbanization is a major phenomenon of the 19th and 20th centuries.
More than 50% of the world's population lives in cities.
Demographic estimates:
- 2030: 60% will live in cities
- 2050: Nearly 70% will live in cities
Most of this growth will be in less-developed countries (LDCs) within the periphery and semi-periphery.

Influence of Site and Situation on Cities

Location is critical in urban geography.
Site: Characteristics at the immediate location (physical features, climate, labor force, human structures).
Situation: Location relative to surroundings and connectivity to other places (e.g., near a gold mine, on the coast, by a railroad).
Site and situation influences function.
Specialized functions of cities: defense, religion, trade, education, finance, transportation, government, manufacturing, retirement, entertainment, residential housing or service centers.
Larger cities often have multiple functions.
Cities near natural ports (e.g., Boston, New York City) started as trade centers and now provide multiple functions.

Early City-States

City-state: Urban center and surrounding territory (agricultural villages).
Independent political system, functioning independently from other city-states.
Villages received services/protection.
Defense was primary; military leaders became political rulers/kings due to frequent raids for wealth.
Early city-states emerged in urban hearths (defensible sites and river valleys with fertile soils):
- Tigris-Euphrates Valley (Mesopotamia) in modern Iraq
- Nile River Valley and Nile Delta in modern Egypt
- Indus River Valley in modern Pakistan
- Huang-He floodplain in modern China
Other centers: Mesoamerica (modern Mexico) and Andean region of South America.
Examples: Classical Greece (Athens, Sparta, Corinth), Middle Ages in Europe, Venice and Italian city-states during the Renaissance.
Modern city-states: Monaco, Vatican City, Singapore (evolved from religious influence rather than agricultural settlements).
City-states coalesced to form early states/empires (e.g., Babylonian Empire from Babylon).

Centers for Services

Cities grew, and more people developed specialized skills.
Relationship between cities and surrounding areas shifted.
City residents depended on farmers for food.
Cities supplied services for inhabitants and surrounding regions.
Early cities specialized in administrative, religious, defensive, university, or production services.

Defining Cities

Most definitions involve a relatively high concentration of people.
Cities are nucleated or clustered settlements.
Urban area: Central city plus commercial, industrial, or residential land, including suburbs.

Legal Definition of a City

Higher-density area within officially recognized political boundaries.
Useful for determining population, taxing residents, providing services, and enforcing laws.
Large cities often share boundaries with adjacent cities.

Metropolitan Areas

Collection of adjacent, economically connected cities with high, continuous population density.
Referred to by the name of the largest city.
Example: Denver, Colorado metro area (Denver, Aurora, Lakewood, Englewood, Greenwood Village).
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA): (in the U.S.) City of ≥50,000 people, the county it's in, and adjacent counties with high social/economic integration.
Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Cities of >10,000 but <50,000 inhabitants, the county they're in, and surrounding, integrated counties.
City defined as a nodal region -- focal point in a matrix of connections.

Morphology (Physical Characteristics)

Morphology includes buildings, streets, public places, and homes.
- Built-up area: Landscape with high concentration of people and structures.
- Outskirts: Built-up areas give way to open spaces/underdeveloped areas.
- Urban border: End of a continuously built-up area, whether or not it coincides with a legally defined city boundary.

Population Characteristics

Social heterogeneity is high cities.
Greater variety of people (cultural interests, sexual orientations, languages, professions).

Immigration

Cities are centers of immigration.
Ex: 40%+ of population is foreign-born in cities like Miami, San Jose, Toronto, Vancouver, Sydney, Melbourne.

Diversity

Urban residents are accustomed to diversity due to high population density and relative anonymity.
Signs in many languages, diverse restaurants, and varied religious buildings.
Cities attract people with less common cultures, interests, or ways of life, leading to even more diversity.

Transportation and Communication

Improvements in transportation and communication have aided city growth.
Urban areas have expanded as trains, buses, and cars have enabled people to move farther from the city while still working/visiting.
Time-space compression through transportation improvements led to urban growth.
Internet development allows more people to work from home, increasing the distance from a city center.

Borchert's Transportation Model

Developed by geographer John Borchert.
Describes urban growth based on transportation technology.
Each new technology changed movement of people and goods within and between urban areas.
Four periods (epochs) profoundly affected a city's form (shape), size, density, and spatial arrangement.
Transportation impacts distribution/connectivity of cities on regional, national, and global levels.

Borchert's Epochs

Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790-1830):
- Water ports became crucial.
- Poor road conditions made long-distance travel between cities difficult.
Iron Horse Epoch (1830-1870):
- Steam engines powered boats, promoting river-city growth.
- Regional rail networks connected cities.
- Rail lines linked resources and industrial sites.
Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920):
- Transcontinental railways emerged.
- Cities emerged along rail lines in the continental interior.
Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920-1970):
- Cars allowed cities to spread out.
- Airport hubs emerged.
- Cities became far more interconnected.
Post-1970 trends: cities encouraging mass transit, biking, and walking; increased importance of jet air travel is not captured by Borchert's model.

Transportation's Impact on Cities

The earliest urban centers were pedestrian cities.
Horse-and-buggy era allowed city size to increase as people could move farther from the center.
Streetcar systems encouraged population movement, concentrating growth along rail lines.
Streetcar suburbs: Communities grew along rail lines in a pinwheel shape.
The automobile's effects on cities profoundly changed cities.
Population spread out, decreasing density away from city's center.
Lower-density suburbs emerged and often developed as separate legal cities but functioned as part of the metropolitan area.
U.S. Interstate highway system has situational advantages of accessibility to road networks.
Access to multiple modes of transportation is needed to grow economically.

Communication Networks

Changes in communication technology dramatically impact city growth.
Historically, cities connected to trade routes received information first.
Cities are nodal regions requiring connectivity to thrive.
New communication technologies diffused hierarchically.
Today, advanced communication networks are essential to attract corporations, factories, or high-tech companies.

Population Growth and Migration

Rural-to-urban migration is important to understanding how cities grow.
Push factors from agricultural communities: population growth, cultural tension, environmental strain, lack of economic opportunity.
Hope of economic opportunities and cultural freedoms in cities are a major pull factor.
The most rapid rural-to-urban migration occurs in periphery and semi-periphery countries (China, India, Brazil).
This migration primarily occurs domestically/within the country.
Rapid growth has created challenges for cities (substandard housing, overcrowding, infrastructure stress).
In core countries (like the U.S.), this pattern has slowed.
Domestic and international migration to cities in the West and South of U.S. has increased due to perceived economic opportunity, cost of living, and quality of life.

Economic Development and Government Policies

Cities are viewed as engines of growth.
Economic and political leaders develop policies to guide urban growth.
Cities have different functions/economic emphases.
Economic incentives (low-cost loans, lower taxes, cheap land) used to encourage economic development.
The economic function of a city can change over time (e.g., Pittsburgh attracting high-tech industries).
Cities compete to attract companies and jobs.
National scale policies impact city development.
Example: China's "New Urbanization Plan" developed specialized cities and designated the eastern coast for urbanization using tax incentives, land grants, and connected cities.

6.2 Cities Across the World

Essential Question: What are the processes that initiate and drive urbanization and suburbanization?
The urbanization process differs across regions.
In North America after World War II, changes in transportation, demographics, and the economy dramatically changed how cities developed.

Suburbanization

Suburb: A primarily residential area adjacent to an urban area.
Suburbanization: People moving to residential areas on the outskirts of cities but remain connected to the city for business and services.
Suburbs are often less densely populated and ethically diverse than inner cities.

Causes of Suburbanization

Economic expansion.
Greater purchasing power.
Car-centered lifestyle.
Government construction of highways for commuters.
Mortgage Loans enabled families to move to the suburbs.
Racial tensions (white flight).
*Government investment in suburban growth, and lack of investment in inner-cities.

Shifting Trends

In the developed world (especially North America), suburbanization is the most significant change in urban areas since the mid-20th century.
Suburbs are now the dominant form of residential living in the United States.
Cities spread out horizontally = Sprawl

Sprawl

The rapid expansion of a city's spatial extent and occurs for numerous reasons:
- Growth of suburbs
- Lower land costs in suburbs
- Lower-density single-family housing
- Weak planning laws
- Growth car culture
It it most common in growing areas in the Southeast and West of the U.S.
Leap-frog development: Developers buy land and build communities beyond the city's built area.
Atlanta has grown to over 8,300 square miles with 6 million people.
In other parts of the world, cities are smaller in physical size. Mexico City is 580 square miles but contains over 21 million people, resulting in a much more compact and densely populated city.

New Forms of Land Use

Boomburbs: Rapidly growing communities with 100,000+ residents that aren't the largest city in the metro area (e.g., Mesa, Arizona; Plano, Texas; Riverside, California).
Edge cities: Economic activity nodes that have developed in the periphery of large cities (tall office buildings, retail shops, relatively few residences, junctions of major transportation routes).
Counter-urbanization/deurbanization: Urban residents leaving cities.
Exurbs: Prosperous residential districts beyond the suburbs; this is caused by remote work and affordability of land.
Reurbanization: Suburbanites return to live in the city.

Megacities and Metacities

Megacities and metacities are the world's largest cities.
Megacities: Population >10 million people.
Metacities: Defined in two ways
- Continuous urban area with >20 million people
- Network of urban areas that form a larger interconnected urban system
Can spread across political borders.
Exert regional and worldwide influence from population size or political, economic, and cultural power.
The first and largest metacity: Tokyo, Japan (>37 million).
New York City: 10th largest with just over 20 million people.

Megalopolis

Term from early 1900s to describe a chain of connected cities.
Became common after 1961 when Jean Gottman described the Boston to Washington, D.C corridor.
Called "Bos-Wash Corridor" now includes nearly 50 million residents.
These cities merged into a single conurbation, an uninterrupted urban area.
Cities crossed state boundaries.
Megalopolises are in California from San Diego to San Francisco and in Japan from Tokyo through Yokohama.

Urbanization in the Developing World

Megacities were once at the centers of large empires or powerful countries.
Now more common in less-developed countries due to high birth rates and increased rural-to-urban migration.
Most urban areas are in semiperiphery or periphery countries.
Megacities in relatively poor countries lack resources to respond to the same challenges their wealthy counterparts.
Common concerns:
- Social problems
- Joblessness
- Lack of infrastructure
- Poor housing
- Environmental problems

6.3 Cities and Globalization

Essential Question: How do cities influence the processes of globalization?
Cities are growing in size, and are the economic engine of the global economy. A critical analysis of the influence of urban systems to is needed to understand world cities and urban hierarchies.

World Cities

Influential cities beyond national boundaries with media hubs and financial centers (e.g., New York, London, Tokyo, Paris).
Key decision centers for the global economy (products, manufacturing, banking, etc.).
Ranked by financial power, innovation, academic resources, cultural influence, livability, connectivity, and political influence.
Decisions made by leaders in world cities impact all people and drive globalization.
Typically wield political power on national and international levels that rival national leaders.

Connectivity and Urban Hierarchy

Cities do not function in isolation, but in a larger urban system with a ranking (urban hierarchy).
Connectivity to regional, national, global networks.
Nodal cities are command centers on regional/national levels (e.g., Denver, Phoenix, Minneapolis).
Cities specializing in certain functions are another level of the urban hierarchy. (e.g., Austin, Texas for government, etc)

6.4 The Size and Distribution of Cities

Essential Question: What are the different urban concepts such as hierarchy, interdependence, relative size, and spacing that are useful for explaining the distribution, size, and interaction of cities?
Cities range in size from a few thousand to over 20 million inhabitants (e.g., Karachi, Pakistan).
Exist in an urban system (interdependent set of cities that interact at regional, national, and global scales).
Models explain the distribution and interaction of urban systems.

Urban Hierarchy

Ranking influenced by population size.
World cities are at the top of the global hierarchy regarding power.
Megacities/metacities are at the top in population.
On a national/regional scale, we can see urban hierarchy using the rank-size rule and primate city concepts.

Rank-Size Rule

Describes how sizes of cities develop in a region.
The nth largest city will be 1/n the size of the largest city.
Size of city is predicted by its rank.
Geographers like this model for well-developed regions/countries, in areas where federal governments share power.
The model implies cities of all sizes and services, from high-order in largest cities to lower-order in smaller cities.
High-order services are usually expensive and need a large number of people to support. (e.g., professional sports teams, etc).
Lower-order services are usually inexpensive with a smaller population needed to support (e.g., local grocery stores, etc.).
This is an indicator of the system that can efficiently provide needed services but limitations include explaining the distribution of data. Metropolitan area population is used.

Primate Cities

If the largest city is more than twice as large as the next largest city; this provides more services, and often medium cities are not present.
Countries that have unitary governments will follow this rule.
Mexico is a model for the primate city, so people will immigrate.

Gravity Model

*Larger and closer places will have more interactions than smaller distances.
*Model used to predict the flow of workers and interactions.
*Cities use many factors and distance such as a physical barrier that impact the interactions between cities.

Central Place Theory

Model to explain the distribution of cities of different sizes for a region.
*Defined a central place where people receive goods and services.
*Large cities and transportation have influence of expanding into the market.

The Shape of Market Areas

*Market area surrounds each central place and they higher they are the more they have in market areas.
*Areas depict Hinterlands.
*Market is used by the use concepts of threshold and range.

Determines Threshold needed for service and profitable is to be and the distance.

Limitation Of Threshold

It assumed a flat that does not take into account mountains. Does not consider train or water or availability of transport.

Chapter 16: Urban Structure

Topics 6.5 - 6.7

6.5 The Internal Structure of Cities

Essential Question: How do various models and theories explain the internal structure of cities?
*Cities, important factors with constant innovation, economic, political and cultural power.
*Urban Models and the functions of sharing, classifying, and describing areas and land.
*City-regions or zones that fit together as puzzle to identify the urban models.

Urban Zones

*principle underlying all urban models is function.
*Areas are:

Central Business District-commercial heart of city near center where city was founded high services dominate the CBD.
Industrial/Commercial Zone outside the central business district is dedicated to industrial zone include transport and noise.
Residential Zone that exists for people to shop and are separate from the CBD through zoning or housing.

Models Of North American Cities

Three models describe zones of area of cities.

Concentric zones series of rings around business and traffic
Sector used low-or high-income housing located near the CBD. High-income residences are away from the industrial sector.
Multiple Nuclei zone around multiple centers to attract a patchwork model of the peripheral for service nodes.

*Galactic Cities smaller nodes by a system of Detroit and suburban growth.

Regional Models

*share character of models is that functional nation is for model.

*Many of today's Euope grew of Medieval pre-instrial cities which grew slowly.

CBD for short buildings.

Middle Eastern and Islamic Cities The Islamic cities where shape and the principal mosques are used for service.

Latin-Amerian often have neighborhoods from extreme lawlessness.

African Cities are built on top of zones, manufacturing, commercial, tradition for broad streets and are usually based on ethnicity.

Asian Cities or built within cities that also have industrial use on the peripheric.

6.6 Density And Land Use

Essential Question:
What are low, medium and high-density housing characteristics that represent patterns of residential land use.
Residential area and social divison, local land use, and regulation.

Local Regulations on Land Use

Cities use zoning ordinances, regulations, and tool of urban planning.

Ordinances are:

Residential where people are at.
Commercial to buy sales.
Industrial where they make themes.

Residental Zones

Areas that devotec residential inner citi apartment with high areas gradient suburbs with single housing.
Suburbs have tearing down existing homes which conform as McMansion and known as homognous.
This homes were also the advantages and process and how the disadvantages of this process affect these areas.

Cycles Of Residential Zones

Existing resident change and create a ripple factor and this include:

*ethnic enclave.
*landscapes through sequent occupancy .

*Gated communities with Urban infill suburbanites can use ways to reduce span.

*Another involves availibity of change.

all of changes and where rents are part of suburbanization.
residential gradients outside north america has the density increaing even though the population increaeses in high rise.

Gated Communities emerge to develop in all regions of the modern word.

6.7 Instructure

Essential Question:
How does a city infrastctre related to poiltics, society, and enviroment.
Critical function and buliding and systems in place in any city.
Such as the communication and building for collection of garbage and buildigns fro entertainment venues.
Deciding who should pay or debated and offers issues for politcal organztion.
City and government municiaplity for urban governments and are responbiel for governing. To be annex and incorporate to provide proper infrastructure.

Infrastructure and Economic

Wealth with devlopment and improvein infrastructure.

Franfurt with transit telecommunication.

Lagos With transportation and population infrastructure with improvement of conditions and a city with good potential.

The Urban Sector

Public Transporation is imporant to move around and congestion with mass transportation.