Chapter 16

LENIN'S FINAL YEARS AND 16 KEY DEBATES

Introduction

  • Historical perspective by Orlando Figes: "There was no private Lenin behind the public mask. He gave all of himself to politics. He rarely showed emotions, he had few intimates, and everything he ever said or wrote was intended only for the revolutionary cause. He was not a man but a political machine."

Overview

  • Importance of Lenin: Key figure in understanding the Russian Revolution.
      - Even Trotsky acknowledged that the revolution would not have happened without Lenin.
      - Visionary revolutionary who adapted Marxist theory to the challenges of a backward Russia.
  • Final Years (1922-1924): Examination crucial as it reveals true priorities in the end-of-life context.
      - Key Issues for Discussion:
        - How did Lenin impose absolute control?
        - What was the nature of Lenin’s illness and reactions to his death?
        - What were Lenin’s final political concerns?
        - What were the key debates surrounding Lenin?

Chapter Flow

  • Timeline of Key Events:
      - 1921: Ban on factions and political parties
      - 1922: Formation of the USSR
      - 1922: Lenin’s first stroke
      - 1923: Bureaucratic nature of the party
      - 1924: Lenin’s death

Imposing Absolute Control

  • Purging Political Opponents: Lenin initiated a purge against opposing political party members critical of Bolshevik leadership.
      - March 1921: Tenth Party Congress emphasized unity, but Lenin enforced compliance.
      - Termed the purge as eliminating ‘radishes’ – those appearing red politically but not truly revolutionary.
      - The Cheka (secret police) was granted unchecked authority, resulting in the expulsion of about one-quarter of party members by the end of 1922.

  • Centralism and Bureaucracy: Development of bureaucratic centralism as the main governance model.
      - Transformation to a stern, disciplined, and organized party reflecting Lenin's earlier advocacy since the Menshevik split (1903).

  • Significant Events:
      - 1921: Ban on factions (e.g., Kollontai’s Workers’ Opposition) and illegalization of opposition parties (Mensheviks).
      - 1922: Six provinces formed independent Soviet republics, leading to the creation of the USSR, defined by the Treaty on Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
      - 1923: Bureaucratic struggle redefined the party, leading to a culture less reliant on strong personalities.

  • Cheka and Secret Police Evolution: The Cheka was replaced by the GPU in 1922 and the OGPU in 1924, with Felix Dzerzhinsky leading these organizations.

Illness and Death

  • Illness: Suffered from two major strokes in 1922 and a third stroke in March 1923 causing paralysis and loss of speech.
      - Despite physical incapacitation, he remained mentally active and authored frequent letters.
      - Visits from Politburo members (Stalin and Kamenev) were common; Trotsky’s visits were infrequent.

  • Political Achievements: Sum of Lenin’s contributions include:
      1. Introducing a socialist society.
      2. Defeating counter-revolutionary forces in the Civil War.
      3. Stabilizing the economy via the New Economic Policy (1921).

  • Health Cause Speculation:
      - Surgery in April 1922 after an assassination attempt (August 1918) possibly impacted further health due to lead poisoning.
      - First stroke occurred after persistent health issues following the bullet removal.

  • Death: Lenin died on January 21, 1924.
      - Reactions:
        - Trotsky's emotional response: "We have lost Lenin… Medicine has proved powerless…"
        - Widespread public grief; theatres closed, issues of commemorative stamps, and renaming of Petrograd to Leningrad.
        - Lenin’s body was embalmed and placed in a glass tomb for public viewing, which led to a surge in public visitors at his mausoleum.

  • Final Political Concerns (1922): Dictated his Political Will against medical advice, summarizing reflections on party leaders and succession recommendations.
      - Acknowledged Stalin's growing power and discussed the potential risks of a split within the Central Committee.
      - Suggested removal of Stalin due to concerns about his approach and temperament.

Historical Interpretation Challenges

  • Personal Values: Historians' interpretations vary based on sympathy toward Marxist ideologies.
      - Christopher Hill's favorable view contrasts with Richard Pipes' critical perspective regarding Lenin's goals.

  • Assessing Motivation: The pure or heartless nature of Lenin’s motivations continue to provoke debate.

  • Hindsight Issue: Analyzing Lenin’s actions through the lens of later Soviet history complicates understanding.

  • Time Constrains: Lenin's governance lasted only 6 years, with considerable portions spent during wars or sickness, affecting rule analysis.

Key Debates on Lenin

  • Changing Human Nature: Theoretical discussion on whether communist policies can reform human nature, with historians split on effectiveness.
      - Lenin believed in the malleability of human nature, contrasting Figes' assertion of the inherent stability of human behavior despite political systems.

  • Proletariat Representation: Debates exist as to whether Lenin's politics truly represented the proletariat's needs or simply furthered party power.
      - Historical evaluations emphasize the disproportion of power and privilege exercised by the Bolsheviks and Lenin's disengagement from broad social issues.

  • Dictatorial Governance: Historical perspectives diverge on whether Lenin should be classified strictly as a dictator.
      - The Times (1923) characterized him as obeyed without fear, while Volkogonov argues for a more nuanced view.

  • Violence Necessity: Historians continue to debate the justification for Lenin's use of violence.
      - Volkogonov lambasts the normalization of terror while Hill argues its necessity in abolishing previous oppressive regimes.

Conclusion

  • Lenin's legacy remains contentious, debated through perspectives shaped by interpretations of his actions and the subsequent impact on Russian society.
  • Contemporary analyses continue to grapple with the implications of his strategies and philosophies.